Unit 2 - Research Methodology Flashcards
Quantitative Research
deals in numbers, logic, data, and an objective stance
Nomothetic Research
a macro-centric study personality that classifies people into groups based on what personality traits they have
Variables
things that can be changed or altered, such as a characteristic or value
Operationalized
defining measurement of a phenomenon which is not directly measurable
Constructs
a tool used to facilitate understanding human behavior or a concept
Operationalizations
abstract concepts – measurable observations
Experimental Studies
research that uses objectively measurable data
Independent Variable
variable manipulated by research
Dependent Variable
variable expected to change as the independent variable changes
Cause-and-effect Inferences
the process of determining the independent variable, actual effect of a particular phenomenon that is a component of a larger system
Correlational Studies
the researcher does not manipulate any variables (there is no IV or DV)
Descriptive Studies
relationships between variables are not investigated and the variables are approached separately
Qualitative Research
makes use of such data collection methods as interviews or observations
Idiographic Approach
approach to research that focuses on understanding the unique experiences of individuals specific cases
Sample
a small portion of individual cases selected from a greater population
Sampling
the process of finding and recruiting individuals for an experiment
Credibility
degree in which the results can be trusted to reflect reality
Bias
tendency to respond or feel a certain way towards someone/something based on previous knowledge/opinion
Generalizability
the degree to which you can apply the results of your study to a broader context
Confounding Variables
contribute to bias in an experiment – must be controlled either by eliminating or keeping constant in all groups
Target Population
the entire population that the researchers are interested in researching and analyzing
Representativeness
the degree to which a smaller group represents a larger group
Participant Characteristics
the demographic and relevant personal attributes of individuals taking part in a study (race, gender, age, etc)
Random Sampling
every member of the target population has an equal chance of becoming part of the sample
Stratified Sampling
the division of a population into smaller subgroups known as strata
Convenience Sampling
participants that are more easily available
Self-Selected Sampling
recruiting volunteers
Independent Measures Design
random allocation of participants into groups and a comparison between these groups
Matched Pairs Designs
each subject is matched with another subject with similar variables/qualities
Matching Variable
the controlled variable when using the matched pairs design
Repeated Measures Design
useful when trying to compare conditions instead of participants
Order Effects
results may differ depending on which conditions come first
Counterbalancing
using other groups of participants where the order of the conditions is reversed
Participant Variability
differences between the groups before the experiment starts
Construct Validity
the extent to which your test or measure accurately assesses what its supposed to
Internal Validity
the extent to which a research study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship
Population Validity (External Validity)
the extent to which findings can be generalized from the sample to the target population
Ecological Validity (External Validity)
the extent to which findings can be generalized form the experiment to other settings or situations
Selection
when some groups are not equivalent at the start of the experiment
History
outside events that happen to participants in the course of the experiment (aka distractions)
Maturation
throughout the experiment, participants go through natural developmental processes, such as fatigue and growth
Testing Effect
the first measurement of the DV may affect the second measurement
Instrumentation
when the instrument measuring the DV changes slightly between measurements (ex. the observer gets tired and loses focus)
Regression to the Mean
how variables much higher or lower than the mean are often much closer to the mean when measured a second time
Experimental Mortality
the fact that some participants drop out during an experiment, which may become a problem if dropouts are not random
Demand Characteristics
when participants understand the purpose of the experiment and change their behavior subconsciously to fit their interpretation of the “right” answer
Experimenter Bias
to situations in which the researcher unintentionally exerts an influence on the results of the study
Quasi-Experiments
studies that aim to evaluate interventions but that do not use randomization
Field Experiments
experiments conducted in a real-life setting
Piliavin, Rodin and Piliavin’s Study
the researchers pretended to collapse on a subway train and observe if other passengers would help (sometimes they had canes, others alcohol)
Natural Experiments
conducted in participants natural environment – the researcher has zero control over the IV
Correlation
a measure of linear relationship between two variables
Effect Size
the absolute value of the correlation coefficient
Cohen (1988)
widely accepted guidelines based on his suggestions to interpret the effect size correlations in social sciences
Statistical Significance
shows the likelihood that a correlation of this size has been obtained by chance
“The Third Variable Problem”
there is always a possibility that a third variable exists that correlates both X and Y
Curvilinear Relationships
sometimes variables are linked non-linearly
Spurious Correlations
when a researcher study involves calculating multiple correlations between multiple variables, there is a possibility that some of the correlations are the result of random chance
Trustworthiness
also used to denote credibility in qualitative research
Triangulation
a combination of different approaches to collecting and interpreting data
Establishing a Rapport
researchers should ensure that participants are being honest
Iterative Questioning
the researcher returns to matters previously raised by the informant and extracts data through rephrased questions
Reflexivity
researchers should reflect on the possibility that their own bias might have interfered with the observations or interpretations
Epistemological Reflexivity
reflecting on the assumptions and knowledge claims made in the study
Credibility Checks
checking accuracy of data by asking participants to read over the researchers observations and confirm the transcript represents what they meant
Thick Descriptions
describing a phenomenon in sufficient detail so that it can be understood holistically and in context
Laboratory vs. Naturalistic Observation
Laboratory –> observed in a lab/controlled environment
naturalistic –> observed in an untampered environment
Overt Observation
when participants are aware of the fact that they are being observed
Covert Observation
the researcher does not inform the members of the study about the reasons for their presence (they’re unaware of their observation)
Participant Observation
the observer becomes part of the observed group
Structured Observation
recorded systematically and in a standardized way
Unstructured Observation
does not have a pre-defined structure and observers simply register whatever behaviors they deem important
Interview Transcript
interview data that is in the form of an audio recording or video
Interview Notes
accompanying observations about the participants and the interview content
Structured Interviews
a fixed list of questions that need to be asked in a fixed order
Semi-Structured Interviews
do not specify an order or a particular set of questions
Unstructured Interviews
mostly participant-driven and follow-up questions
Focus Group
a research method used to solicit feedback from a small group of people on a specific topic
Inductive Content Analysis
the researcher identifies themes and concepts from data without preconceived categories or theories
Inductive Reasoning
specific to general conclusions
Deductive Reasoning
general to specific conclusions
Memos
notes that explain to the reader of the study how and why certain analysis decisions were made
Grounded Theory
when a theory emerges from the data (comes from empirical data opposed to prior beliefs)
Case Study
A case study is an in-depth study of one person, group, or event
