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bio12 > Unit 2: metabolic processes > Flashcards

Unit 2: metabolic processes Flashcards

1
Q

single sugars

A

saccharide

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2
Q

double sugars

A

disaccharide

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3
Q

glucose has an explosive amount of what

A

potential energy

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4
Q

What is ATP

A

a usable form of energy for the cell

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5
Q

mitochondria are:

A
  • small, bean shaped
  • have their own DNA and Ribosomes- tought to have originated from bacteria (endosymbiotic theroy)
  • 2 membranes- inner and outer
  • inner has many folds called cristae
  • space between the 2 membrane is called intermembranous space
  • its function is to convert food energy into usable energy
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6
Q

what enzyme is requird for cellular resp

A

ATP synthase

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7
Q

the conversion of glucose to ATP requires

A

a series of chemical reactions

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8
Q

cellular resp equation

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2 + ATP

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9
Q

glycolysis where does it occur

A

cytoplasm

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10
Q

where does the krebs cycle occur

A

matrix of the mitochondrion

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11
Q

where does the electron transport chain occur

A

inner membrane of the mitochondrion (cristae)

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12
Q

NADH & FADH2

A

important energy carrier molecules involved in cellular resp

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13
Q

2 ways of ATP is made

A

1) substrate level phosphorylation - simple
2) oxidative phosphorylation - complex

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14
Q

describe substrate level phosphorylation

A
  • involves the generation of ATP directly in an enzyme catalyzed reaction whereby a phosphate contaning compound transfers a’ phosphate group to ADP.
  • the formation of ATP is endergonic and it is coupled with an exergonic reaction
  • the release of energy from the exergonic reaction is greater than the energy needed for the generation of ATP
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15
Q

describe oxidative phosphorylation

A
  • ATP is generated by a diffusion force similar to osmosis
  • it is performed by transmembrane channels that pump protons from one side of a membrane to another
  • proton pumping proteins use excited eelctrons to induce shape changes in the transmembrane proteins
    -these shape changes “spit” out the protons on the other side of the membrane
  • proton concentration on one side of the membrane becomes high (compared to the other side)
    protons are driven down the concentration gradient by diffusion
  • protons pass through special membrane channels that use their passage and energy to change ADP and one inorganic phosphate into ATP
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16
Q

why is oxidative phosphorylation reffered to as oxidative phosphorylation

A

oxygen is the final acceptor of the excited electrons that help establish the concentration gradient of H+

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17
Q

most basic way of generating ATP

A

substrate level phosphorylation

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18
Q

majority of ATP is produced by

A

oxidative phosphorylation

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19
Q

wher do the electrons that drive the protein pumping channels come from

A

chemical bonds
light energy

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20
Q

chemical bonds

A
  • this occurs in all organisms
  • high energy electrons are extracted from chemical bonds and carried to the proton pumps
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21
Q

light

A

-occurs in photosynthetic organisms
- light energy excites electrons and they move to higher energy levels, which are used to drivee the proton pumps

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22
Q

ATP is a type of

A

nucleic acid

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23
Q

photosynthesis makes

A

glucose

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24
Q

cellular resp breaks/uses

A

glucose

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25
Q

hydrolysis

A

addition of H20 to split a large molecule into smaller components .
ex. sucrose + water -> glucose + water

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26
Q

condensation (dehydration)

A

produces H20 as smaller components are joned to form larger ones .
Ex. glucose + glucose -> maltose + water

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27
Q

decarboxylation

A

a carboxyl group is lost , giving off CO2 and H+
Ex. COOH -> CO2 + H+

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28
Q

oxidation

A

a molecule loses electrons and hydrogen ions

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29
Q

reduction

A

a molecule gains electrons and hydrogen ions

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30
Q

glycolysis occurs in

A

cytoplasm

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31
Q

in glycolysis how many oxidations occur

A

one

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32
Q

overall chemical equation of glycolysis

A

C6H1206 + 2ADP + 2Pi -> 2 Pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2H+

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33
Q

9 steps of glycolysis

A

step 1: glucose is phosphorylated by transferring a phosphate from ATP to produce glucose-6-phosphate
step 2: isomerase rearranges glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate
step 3: another phosphate group is added (taken from an ATP) to make fructiose 1, 6- diphosphate
step 4: enzyme aldolase cleaves glucose into 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (known as G3P or PGAL)
everything below occurs twice
step 5: G3P is oxidized, forming NADH
- an inorganic phosphate is added to G3P to produce 1, 3-diphosphoglycerate
step 6: substrate level phosphorylation of 1, 3-diphosphoglycerate to produce ATP from ADP. left with 3-phosphoglycerate
step 7: relocation of the phosphate group to form 2-phosphoglycerate
(mutase reaction)
step 8: removal of water to form phosphoenopyruvate
step 9: substrate level phosphorylation. the remaining phosphate group is removed and transferred to ADP to make ATP.

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34
Q

Final product of glycolysis

A

PYRUVATE

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35
Q

Whats produced at the end of glycolysis

A

4 ATP produced and 2 ATP used = 2 ATP net
2 NADH produced
2 pyruvate

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36
Q

whats pyruvate oxidation

A

the little side step before Krebs cycle

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37
Q

pyruvate oxidation chemical equation

A

2 pyruvate + 2NAD+ + 2COA -> acetylCOA + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2CO2

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38
Q

what happens in pyruvate oxidation

A
  • pyruvate from glycolysis enters the matrix
  • one carbon atom is removed through decarboxylation
    hydrogen is removed using NAD+
  • COA attached to remaining carbon atoms,creating Acetyl-COA
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39
Q

9 steps of the Krebs cycle

A

(x2 per molecule of glucose)
step 1: oxaloacetic acid (4C) combines with the acetyl (2C) group of Acetyl COA to form citric acid (6C)
step 2a: condensation following by hydrolysis to facillitate an..
step 2b: isomerization(6C)
step 3: redox reaction - isocitric acid (6C) is oxidized
- NAD is reduced to NADH
step 4: decarboxylation (6C) molecules loses a CO2 to form a (5C) molecule
step 5:redox reaction - NAD reduced to NADH
decarboxylation - 5e to 4e
step 6: substrate level phoshorylation ADP + Pi-> ATP
Step 7: redox reaction - FAD is reduced to FADH2
step 8: hydrolysis
step 9: redox reaction -4C malic acid is oxidized to reform oxaloacetic acid, NAD reduced to NADH

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40
Q

Summary of Krebs cycle

A

Per 1 glucose molecule
- 6NADH
- 2 FADH2
- 2 ATP

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41
Q

Overall chemical equation for Krebs Cycle

A

Oxaloacetic acid + acetylCOA + ADP + Pi+3NAD +FAD ->COA + ATP +3NADH + FADH2 + 4CO2 +oxaloacetic acid

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42
Q

Where does electron transport chain take place

A
  • Along the Cristae of the inner mitochondrial membrane
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43
Q

What does ETC consist of

A

3 protein complexes and 2 mobile electron carriers (ubiquinone (Q) and cytochrome c (c)) arranged in order of increasing electronrgativity

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44
Q

Greater electronegativity=

A

Greater attraction for electrons

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45
Q

Explain what happens in ETC

A
  • The complexes are alternately reduced (as the electrons are accepted) and then oxidized(as the electrons are lost or passed along go the next component of the chain)
  • this electron transport is highly endothermic and the free energy released is used to pump protons (H+) into the inter membranous space from the matrix
  • NADH passes it’s 3 electrons to the first protein complex and this can move 6 H+ in total
  • FADH2 passes it’s 2 electrons to the second component in the chain( ubiquinone) and thus only move 4H+
  • NADH molecules produced in glycolysis must be moved into the mitochondrial matrix from the cytoplasm via a shuttle and the shuttle transfers the electrons to a molecule of FAD. Which is reduced to FADH2 and thus only moves 4H+
  • oxygen is the final acceptor of the electrons that have passed through the ETC
  • oxygen strips the 2 electrons from the last protein complex along with 2 H+ floating in the matrix to form water
  • this stage of cellular respiration is aerobic since it’s dependant in the presence of oxygen
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46
Q

fermentation

A

a process in which hydrogen atoms of NADH are transerred to organic compounds other than an ETC.

47
Q

2 types of fermentation

A

ethanol and lactic acid

48
Q

explain ethanol fermentation

A
  • after glycolysis occurs, the pyruvate moleules lose a carbon molecule creating ACETALDEHYDE
  • the carbon atoms combine with oxygen to create CO2
  • acetaldehyde receives a hydrogen from NADH, resulting in the production of ethanol
49
Q

explain Lactic acid fermentation

A
  • Afe glycolysis occurs, the 2 pyruvate molecules receive hydrogen atoms from
  • lactate can be converted back into pyruvate in the liver
  • the pyruvate can then enter the Krebs cycle and cellular respiration can proceed
50
Q

photosynthesis general equation

A

6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy -> C6H12O6 + 6O2

51
Q

all of the worlds oxygen is produced by what

A

photosynthesis

52
Q

what can photosynthesize

A

plants, some bacteria, and some protist(algae)

53
Q

light energy is converted to what

A

the energy of chemcial bonds within chloroplasts

54
Q

where does photosyntheiss occur

A

chloroplast which contains a pigment called chlorophyll

55
Q

2 steps for photosyntheiss

A

1) light reactions: part 1 and 2 (AKA ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM)
2) Dark reaction/ light independent reaction(AKA CALVIN CYCLE)

56
Q

light reaction part 1 main goal

A

capturing light energy

57
Q

light reaction part 2 main goal

A

make ATP and NADPH

58
Q

calvin cycle main goal

A

carbon fixation

59
Q

most photosytnheiss occurs in

A

leaves of plants

60
Q

the clear ___ layer on leaves allow __ to pass througth the __cells where ___photosytnhesis takes place and where __ chlorophyll are found

A

1- epidermis
2- light
3- mesophyll
4- most
5- most

61
Q

photosyntheis occurs partly in the

A

stroma and wthin the thylakoid membrane of chlorophast

62
Q

guard cells do what

A

create tiny openings called stomata that regulate exchange of CO2 and O2 and allow H2O vapour to transpire.

63
Q

what happens to guard cells when K+ moves across the membrane

A

guard cells swell and stoma opens

64
Q

what also opens stoma

A

decrease in CO2

65
Q

what happens to guard cells when K+ diffuses out

A

guard cells becomes flaccid and stoma closes

66
Q

what also closes stoma

A

decrease of sucrose

67
Q

what evens out the change of K+

A

H+ proton pump actively pumping out H+

68
Q

what stimulates an influx of k+

A

light and this causes stoma to mostly open in day and closes at night

69
Q

light is a form of what and how does it travel

A

energy that travels in wave packets called photon

70
Q

whats embedded in thylakoid membrane and what do they absorb and do

A

photosynthetic pigments and absorb photons of certain wavelengths and through the light reactions these transfer their energy to ADP, Pi, and NADP+(which from ATP and NADPH…the H+ comes from from water molecules)

71
Q

different pigments of what absorb what

A

chlorophyll- a and b

72
Q

chlorophyll a does what

A

transfers the energy of light to the 3rd stage- the calvin cycle

73
Q

chlorophyll b and the carotenoids do what

A

transfer their energy to chlorophyll a

74
Q

where does light reaction occur

A

across the thylakoid membrane and in the thylakoid space of a chloroplast

75
Q

what do electrons do when it interacts wtith a photon

A

molecules gain energy and is called excitation

76
Q

what happens to electrons after they are xcited

A

they are released from the double bonds in the porphin ring

77
Q

plants use what to produce NADPH and ATP

A

Photosystems I and II and this is called noncyclic electron flow and photophosphorylation

78
Q

what happens first when a photon strikes pigment molecules in photosysrem II(P680)

A

it excites an electron that, thorugh a series of redox reactions, is transfered to PQ(Plastoquinone)

79
Q

z proteins do what

A

splits water into oxyygen, hydrogen ions and electrons

80
Q

what happens to oxygen at end of photoexcitation

A

oxygen leaves the cell and the H+ remains in the thylakoid space

81
Q

what is noncyclic electron flow

A

the process in which photon-energized electrons form from water to NADP+ this process produces NADPH by reduction

82
Q

why is it called noncyclic

A

once an electron is lost by a reaction centre, it does nt reutrn to the same reaction centre, but ends up as NADPH

83
Q

what happens in photophosphorylation

A

ATP is prduced by chemiosmosis(uses electrochemical gradient and ATP synthase like in ETC in cell resp.)

84
Q

what is required for proton gradient to be made

A

light

85
Q

what happens in cyclic electron flow

A

where an electron is ejected from photosystem I and is passed back to help generate the proton gradient in phosphorylation (but never used to make NADPH)

86
Q

what happens to the NADPH and ATP produced

A

goes on to calvin cycle

87
Q

where does the calvin cycle occur

A

stroma of chloroplasts

88
Q

phase 1 of calvin cycle cycle

A

carbon fixation

89
Q

what happens in phase 1: carbon fixation

A
  • 3 molecules of CO2 combine with ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) with the help of the enzyme rubisco
  • this forms into an unstable compound that plits to form 6 molcules of 3-phosphoglycerate(PGA)
  • these PGA combine witg phosphate groups from ATP to form six 1,3-biphosphoglycerate (1, 3BPG)
90
Q

one of the most important enzymes to exist

A

rubisco

91
Q

phase 2 of calvin cycle

A

reduction reaction

92
Q

what happens in the secod phase of calvin ccle

A
  • 1,3,BPG is reduced using NADPH to form glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate(B3P)
  • one G3P leaves the cycle and is later used to form glucose (or stored as starch), while the other 5 continue through
93
Q

phase 3 of calvin cycle

A

regeration of RuBP

94
Q

what happens in phase 3 of calvin cycle

A
  • the 5 G3P go through a series of reactions to become RuBP which is then used to fix more CO2.
  • 3 ATP are used in one turn of the cycle to fix one CO2(so 9 ATP needed for 3CO2)
  • as tge cycle continues the G3P that leaves is used to make larger sugars
95
Q

overall chem equation per one tunr of the calvin cycle

A

3RuBP+ 3CO2 + 9ATP + 6NADPH + 5H2O -> 9ADP + 8Pi+ 6NADP + G3P + 3 RuBP

96
Q

photorespiration

A

the alternative method of photosynthesis

97
Q

what causes photorespiration

A

the active site of rubisco accepting O2 which acts as a competitor inhibitor instead of CO2, and if O2 binds to rubisco it decreases the amount of carbohydrates that can be produced.

98
Q

what conditions facilitate photorespiration

A

hot,dry, bright days

99
Q

what happens to the plant during hot dry and bright days

A

stomata closes to conserve water thus decreases the amount of CO2 inside the leaf
the light reaction of photosynthesis continues so O2 levels begin to build inside the leaf.

100
Q

where doe C3 fixation occur

A

soybeans, rice,wheat, oats and sunflowers

101
Q

what temperature region does C3 fixation occur

A

mainly in temperate region

102
Q

C4 plants what type of plants

A

sugar cane, corn and many grasses

103
Q

wha do C4 plants seperate

A

the location where carbon fixation and the calvin cycle occur
SPARTIAL SEPERATION

104
Q

C4 plants contain 2 types of photosythetic cells

A

bundle sheath cells surrounded by mesophyll cells

105
Q

mesophyll cells contain an enzyme called

A

PEP carboxylase that incorporates CO2 into molecules of Cu organic acids

106
Q

how do organic acids travel

A

via plasmadesmats from the mesophyll cells to the bundle sheath cells where they are decarboxylation and the CO2 is free to enter the Calvin cycle

107
Q

what do C4 plants strategy ensure

A

that the concentration of CO2 in the bunle sheath cells where the cxalvin cycvlr is always kept high

108
Q

what type of plants ar CAM plants

A

water storing plantssuch as cacti anf pineapple

109
Q

wat do cam plants do

A

seperate the time of day carbon fixation and calvin cycle occur
TEMPORAL SEPERATION

110
Q

cam plants are the reverse of what

A

other plants as stomata open during the night and close during the day

111
Q

cam plants take in what at night

A

CO2 and incorporates them into C4 organic acids using PEP carboxylase which are stored in vacuoles until morning.

112
Q

what happens when stomata plants closes during the day

A

these organic acids release CO2 to allow calvin ctcle to occur

113
Q

the main idea of cam plants

A

they store CO2 at night and uses them during the day

bio12 (4 decks)

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