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Psychology 1/2 > Unit 2 Exam > Flashcards

Unit 2 Exam Flashcards

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1
Q

Visual perception process

A 
Sensation
1. reception 
2. transduction
3. transmission
Perception
1. selection
2. organisation 
3. interpretation
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2
Q

Reception

A
  • Detecting & responding to incoming sensory information

- Stimuli are detected by sensory receptors (photoreceptors)

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3
Q

Transduction

A
  • Photoreceptors will convert electromagnetic energy into electrochemical energy (neural impulses)
  • Once transduction has occurred the information can be sent to the brain for processing
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4
Q

Transmission

A
  • Photoreceptors send the electrochemical information from the retina, along the optic nerve to the occipital lobe
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5
Q

Selection

A
  • The brain only responds & interprets the most important visual stimuli
  • The image sent from the retina is broken up by feature detectors that respond to individual parts of an image (lines, colours & shapes)
  • Pathways from receptor site to the brain & the brain itself contain feature detectors
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6
Q

Organisation

A
  • Grouping of stimuli to form meaningful wholes
  • Broken down images are rearranged so they can be interpreted
  • Features are organised based on a range of mental processes (visual perceptual principles)
    Example: gestalt principles and depth cues
  • Once the information is rearranged it is sent through 2 pathways simultaneously- temple lobe to identify the object from long term memory & parietal lobe to identify the orientation of the object
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7
Q

Interpretation

A
  • Information is given meaning so it can be understood
  • through past experiences
  • Brings together incoming sensory information & uses existing knowledge to make sense of sensory input
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8
Q

Retina

A
  • Layer of photoreceptors at the back of the eye
  • Receives & absorbs light & processes images
  • Convert electromagnetic energy into neural impulses
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9
Q

Cones

A
  • have less photoreceptors than rods
  • mostly in the centre of the retina
  • Works best in bright light
  • Produce colour sensation
  • Pick up fine details
  • Responds to yellow/green light
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10
Q

Rods

A
  • have more photoreceptors than cones
  • mostly in peripheral vision
  • Allows us to see in low light
  • In black & white
  • Less detailed than cone vision
  • Responds to blue/green light
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11
Q

Figure-Ground (gestalt principle)

A
  • Figure: Part of the visual field that has relevance and meaning; stands out and can be clearly differentiated; appears to be closer and brighter than the ground
  • Ground: Less relevant surroundings
    Example: Stop sign- figure = word ‘stop’ & ground = red background
  • The line of separation between the figure and ground is known as the contour
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12
Q

Depth cues

A

Signals provided by the environment or the body which help us establish a perception of depth/distance

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13
Q

Monocular

A
  • Accommodation
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14
Q

Binocular

A
  • Convergence

- Retinal disparity

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15
Q

Accommodation

A

Because the lens is elastic, the muscles around the eye change shape, contracts for near objects and flattens for faraway objects

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16
Q

Relative size

A

Visually perceive the image that makes the largest image on the retina as the closer & the smallest image as further away, when comparing to images of comparable size

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17
Q

Texture gradient

A

Fine detail is perceived as closer than less detail

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18
Q

Linear perspective

A

The apparent convergence of parallel lines as they recede into the distance

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19
Q

Height in the visual field

A

Objects located closer to the horizon are perceived as being further away than objects that are further away from it

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20
Q

Interposition

A

When one object partially obscures another, the obscured object will be perceived as further away

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21
Q

Convergence

A
  • The inward turning of both eyes to focus on an object at close range (within 7cm).
  • Involves the brain detecting & interpreting depth or distance from changes in tension in the eye muscles
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22
Q

Retinal disparity

A
  • Each eye (retina) receives slightly different messages, thus we receive two views of the world
  • This difference leads to the perception of depth ie. the viewing of 3-dimensional shapes
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23
Q

Perceptual constancies

A
  • The tendency to perceive an object as remaining stable & unchanging despite any changes that may occur to the image cast on the retina
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24
Q

Brightness constancy

A
  • Perceive an object as maintaining its level of brightness in relation to its surroundings, despite changes in the amount of light being reflected from the object onto the retina.
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25
Q

Perceptual set

A
  • The predisposition or readiness to perceive a stimulus in accordance with what we expect it to be (influenced by past experiences)
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26
Q

Visual illusion

A

a consistent perceptual error in judging a real external stimulus

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27
Q

Colour influence on taste

A
  • Food appearance helps us make an overall judgement that a particular food is safe to eat
  • Example: in fresh fruit, we rely on colour to determine levels of freshness
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28
Q

Attributions

A

Inferences or judgements that we make about the cause of events

29
Q

Situational Attributes

A
  • external
  • When we explain a persons behaviour in terms of the situation they are/were in
  • Example: he crashed his car because the road was icy
30
Q

Fundamental Attribution Error

A
  • overestimate the influence of personal factors and underestimate the impact of situational factors on other people’s behaviour
  • attribute a person’s behaviour to internal rather than external factors.
31
Q

Actor observer bias

A
  • attribute one’s own actions to external causes while attributing other peoples behaviour to internal causes
  • Example: I did well because I put in effort, they did because the test was easy
  • Example: I made a mistake because the instructions were unclear, they made a mistake because they are stupid
32
Q

Dispositional attribution

A
  • assign responsibility for the behaviour of others to their internal characteristics rather than external
    Example: Her parents assume she didn’t pay enough attention in her studies
33
Q

Classical conditioning

A

learning by association

34
Q

Repeated exposure

A
  • Being exposed to an object, group, person, event or issue repeatedly
    Example: Increased exposure results in me feeling more positive about Grammarly as I am more familiar with this product
35
Q

Operant conditioning

A
  • A method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behaviour.
  • An association is made between a behaviour and a consequence
    Example: Buy one get one free or prizes won at Maccas
36
Q

Personal influence in helping

A
  • Empathy
    The ability to identify and understand another person’s feeling or difficulties.
    We are more likely to help someone if we feel empathy towards them.
  • Mood
    Being in a good mood increases our likelihood to help, whereas being in a bad mood can either increase or decrease our likelihood of helping.
  • Competence
    We won’t help someone if we do not have the skills required
37
Q

Social factors

A
  • Reciprocity norm
    Based on the reciprocity principle which states that we should give what we receive or expect to receive. Therefore the reciprocity norm is that we should help others who help us.
  • Social responsibility norm
    We should help those who need help because it is our responsibility/duty to do so without any expectation that this help we are reciprocated.
38
Q

Situational factors

A
  1. Notice the situation
    When an individual is on their own they are quicker to notice something or ‘different’ or ‘unusual’ than when they are in a group. This can be explained as people in a group are more likely to focus on their interactions with each other than on their surroundings, as compared with when they are alone.
  2. Interpret the situation
    The less ambiguous the situation, the more likely it is that help will be offered, therefore the more ambiguous the situation, the less likely it is that help will be offered.
  3. Take responsibility
    When someone else is nearby in an emergency situation, we may not assume responsibility, rather leave it up to the others to help, even if we don’t interpret them as having the responsibility to help.
39
Q

Attitude

A
  • An evaluation a person makes about an object, person, group, event or issue.
40
Q

Tri-component model of attitudes

A

Affective component: I feel
- The emotional reactions or feelings an individual has towards an object, person, group, event or issue.
It is based on a judgment that results in a positive response (liking or favouring), a negative response (disliking or hating) or a neutral response (lack of interest or concern).
Behavioural component: I do
- The way in which an attitude is expressed through our actions (or how we might behave in certain situations).
Cognitive component: I believe
- The belief we have about an object, person, group, event or issue.
Our beliefs are linked to what we know about the world. They develop as a result of our experience throughout the course of our lives.

41
Q

Stereotype

A

Grouping people into oversimplified categories based on what we know about them, ignores individual characteristics

  • Used to form quick opinions and impressions.
  • Often inaccurate, create stigma and can lead to prejudice → (cognitive)
42
Q

Prejudice

A

Holding a negative attitude towards a specific social group based solely on their membership to that group → (affective)

43
Q

Discrimination

A

Negative behaviour that is directed towards a social group and its members. This could involve ignoring/excluding people, physical violence, genocide → (behavioural)

44
Q

Power

A

An individual’s ability to control or influence the thoughts, feelings or behaviour of another person.
- The higher the status of an individual, the more power they hold

45
Q

Reward power

A

Give positive consequences or remove negative consequences.

46
Q

Coercive power

A

Give negative consequences or remove positive consequences

47
Q

Informational power

A

Having resources or details that are useful and not available elsewhere.

48
Q

Milgram’s experiment

A

Aim: To see if people would obey an authoritative figure who is instructing them to inflict pain on another person

49
Q

Asch’s experiment

A

Aim: To test the extent to which people are subject to group influence
- conformity

50
Q

Zimbardo’s experiment- stanford prison

A

Aim: To investigate the effects of power, status and role expectations within a group

51
Q

Experimental group

A

Exposed to the independent variable

52
Q

Control group

A

Not exposed to the independent variable

- Used to compare levels of the dependent variable

53
Q

Independent variable

A

The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter causing a change in the dependent variable

54
Q

Dependent variable

A

The variable in an experiment that the experimenter chooses to measure in order to assess the effects of the independent variable

55
Q

Extraneous variable

A

Any other variable other than the independent variable that can cause a change in the dependent variable in an unwanted way

56
Q

Role of a confederate

A

An actor that participates in the experiment, pretending to be a subject but is actually working for the researcher

57
Q

Generalisation

A

A decision about how widely the findings of a research study can be applied, particularly to members of the population not included in the sample

58
Q

Ethical Considerations

A
  • Protection & security of participants information
  • Voluntary participation
  • Confidentiality
  • Withdrawal rights
  • Debriefing
  • Informed consent
  • Deception
59
Q

Protection & security of participant information

A
  • From misuse, interference, loss, unauthorised, access, modification, disclosure
  • If information is no longer needed it should be destroyed & or deidentified
60
Q

Voluntary participation

A

Ensure participants voluntary consent to be involved in the study (not forced nor pressured)

61
Q

Confidentiality

A

The obligation of the research not to use or disclose private information for any person other than which it was given to them

62
Q

Withdrawal rights

A

Unconditional right to withdraw from a study at any given time without giving a reason for doing so (including withdrawing data)

63
Q

Debriefing

A

Clarifying each participant’s understanding of the nature of the research as soon as possible after the experiment has been completed

64
Q

Informed consent

A

Consent with an understanding of both the proposed research and any consequences of a participant in it
- Information should be given about purpose, method, demands, risks, potential benefits presented in a way suitable for each participant

65
Q

Deception

A
  • Participants are deliberately misled or not fully informed about the aim or some other aspect of the research
  • Sometimes necessary to avoid influencing their responses during the study and consequently the accuracy of the results
  • Violates the ethical requirement of informed consent
  • Considered acceptable if the potential benefits of the research justify its use and there is no feasible alternative to its use
  • If deception occurs, all participants must be debriefed
66
Q

Rating scales

A

Fixed response questions or statements for which participants rank each item by selecting drom a number of choices

67
Q

Standardised Instructions

A

Directions & explanations given to all participants in each condition are identical in terms of what they state and how they are given

68
Q

Standardised Procedures

A

Techniques for observing & measuring responses are the same for all participants, except for variations associated with exposure to the IV
- The only difference between the experimental and control group should be the IV

Psychology 1/2 (1 decks)

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