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AP Chemistry > Unit 2: Chemical Reactions, Periodic Trends, and Spectroscopy > Flashcards

Unit 2: Chemical Reactions, Periodic Trends, and Spectroscopy Flashcards

1
Q

Who discovered the electron and with what? (#1)

A

JJ Thomson with the cathode ray tube

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2
Q

Who discovered the proton and with what? (#2)

A

Rutherford with the Gold Foil experiment

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3
Q

Who discovered the neutron and with what? (#3)

A

Chadwick and Moseley with bombarding Beryllium with alpha particles

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4
Q

Charge of an electron (-e)

A

-1.6E-19 coulombs

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5
Q

Charge of a proton (+e)

A

+1.6E-19 coloumbs

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6
Q

What makes up electrons, protons, and neutrons?

A

Quarks

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7
Q

EQUATION: Coulomb’s Law

A

F = k x q1 x q2
r2

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8
Q

Coulomb’s Law

A

quantifies the magnitude of the ELECTROSTATIC ATTRACTION (moving charged particles)
- gives force in Newtons between charges, q1 and q2 in coulombs, r is the distance in meters between the charges, and k (Coulomb’s constant)

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9
Q

CONSTANT: Coloumb’s constant

A

8.99E9 N x m2/c2

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10
Q

Thomson’s Atomic Model

A

proposed Plum Pudding model of the atom: electrons embedded in a uniform sphere of positive charge **used cathode ray tube

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11
Q

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

A

It is impossible to simultaneously know an electron’s location and speed around the nucleus of an atom

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12
Q

Quantum Mechanical Model AKA Electron Cloud Model AKA 90% probability model

A

electrons travel in waves around the nucleus, predicts the probability where the electron is going to be 90% of the time

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13
Q

Energy Levels

A

electrons closer to the nucleus are at a lower energy level and have lower energy than those farther away from

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14
Q

Atomic Orbitals

A

each energy level has a sublevel or atomic orbital in which there is high probability of finding an electron (s,p,d, and f)

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15
Q

The Aufbau Principle

A

each electron occupies the lowest energy orbital available in order to maintain proximity to the nucleus

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16
Q

Pauli Exclusion Principle

A

a maximum of two electrons may occupy a single orbital – orbiting the nucleus in opposite directions

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17
Q

Hund’s Rule

A

If two or more orbitals of equal energy are available, electrons will occupy them singly with the same spin before filling them with opposite spins

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18
Q

EXCEPTION: Copper electron configuration

A

[Ar] 4s^1 3d^10

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19
Q

EXCEPTION: Chromium electron configuration

A

[Ar] 4s^1 3d^5

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20
Q

Paramagnetic

A

An element with unpaired electrons that is magnetic is called paramagnetic
ex: O, Co, Cr

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21
Q

Diamagnetic

A

an element with no unpaired electrons is NOT magnetic and is called diamagnetic
ex: Ca

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22
Q

Mendeleev periodic table

A

arranged the elements according to:
1. increasing atomic mass
2. elements with similar properties in the same row

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23
Q

Moseley periodic table

A

arranged the elements according to:
1. increasing atomic number
2. elements with similar properties in the same column

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24
Q

elements in the same _ have similar chemical and physical properties

A

COLUMN

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25
group names
(1) alkali metals, (2) alkaline earth metals, (13) boron family, (14) carbon family, (15) pnictogens, (16) chalcogens, (17) halogens, (18) noble gases
26
What 3 things cause periodic trends?
1. Coulombic attraction/electrostatic interactions between the protons and electrons within the atom 2. Effective nuclear charge 3. Electron shielding
27
Effective Nuclear Charge
The net nuclear "pull" experienced by the valence electrons in an atom
28
FORMULA: Effective Nuclear Charge
Zeff = Z - S Z = atomic number S = number of electrons in orbitals that are closer to the nucleus (not valence)
29
Shielding Effect
Successive shells are larger than the previous shell, inner electrons shield the outer electrons from some of the nucleus' attractive force aka electrostatic repulsion
30
Atomic Radius periodic trend
Distance from nucleus to outermost electron - Increases down, decreases across - Down = shielding effect increases - Across = ENC increases
31
Ionization Energy periodic trend
The minimum amount of energy that is required to remove the outermost, least lightly held, electron, from an atom (measured in volts OR kJ of energy) - increases across, decreases down - across = ENC increases - down = shielding effect/radius increases
32
Ionic Radius periodic trend
Size of an atom when it takes or loses electrons and becomes an ion - metals lose (cations), nonmetals gain (anions) - metals get smaller because: weaker shielding effect + ENC increases - nonmetals get larger because: same shielding effect, but ENC decreases (same # protons pulling more electrons = FoA decreases)
33
Electronegativity AKA Electron Affinity periodic trend
Tendency of an atom to attract an electron - increases across, decreases down - across = ENC increases - down = shielding effect/radius increases
34
Metallic Character periodic trend
Metals are: easy to shape/malleable, ductile (pulled into wires), conduct electricity and heat, shiny ***Talk about ionization energy - increases down because IE decreases - decreases across because IE increases **Metals have low ionization energy
35
Reactivity periodic trend
tendency of an atom to react - metals: lose electrons, so reactivity based on IE (low IE = high reactivity) - nonmetals: gain electrons, so reactivity based on electronegativity (high electronegativity = high reactivity)
36
Ionization Energy graphs H to He
He has double the amount of protons, so nearly 2x the ionization energy of H
37
Ionization Energy graphs H to Li
Li has a greater shielding effect due to its larger radius, so nearly 1/2 the ionization energy of H
38
Ionization Energy graphs EXCEPTIONS
WHEN in same period: 1. It requires more energy to pull electron from a full d-suborbital than to pull the only electron in a p-suborbital (Zn vs. Al) 2. It requires more energy to pull from full s orbital than it does to pull the only electron in a p-suborbital (Be vs. B) BECAUSE d extends further than p & p extends further than s
39
Electron Repulsions: Paired vs. Unpaired Electrons
- a paired electron has increased electron-electron repulsion acting upon it which acts to lessen the hold of the nucleus' on a paired electron, lowering ENC - THUS, less energy to remove paired electron than unpaired electrons (BC ALREADY REPULSION)
40
Successive Ionization Energies
- With each removal, the ion becomes more positive because the nucleus' hold on its electrons strengthens - Sharp increase in ionization energy occurs when inner shell electrons are removed
41
Isotropes
Atoms with the same number of protons and different number of neutrons; elements occur in nature as a mixture of isotopes
42
Isotopic Notation
A X A: Atomic # Z Z: Mass # X: Element
43
CALCULATION: Average atomic mass
(%)(atomic mass #) + (%)(atomic mass #) - weighted average of all isotopes; found on periodic table
44
Steps of Mass Spectroscopy
1. Ionization 2. Acceleration 3. Deflection/Separation 4. Detection
45
Mass Spectroscopy Graphs
1. # peaks = # isotopes 2. relative heights = relative abundance
46
EXCEPTION: Mass Spectroscopy Graphs of diatomics
1. The first set of peaks represents the diatomic atoms being separated into single atoms 2. The second set of peaks represents the diatomic elements left whole 3. Look at first set of peaks to see avg. atomic mass of individual element, and the second set to see avg. atomic mass of diatomic
47
Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer
Vaporized the compound into a gas, and then the sample is bombarded with electrons. The electrons fragment the molecule into smaller pieces, even ions
48
Microwave Spectroscopy
ROTATES entire small molecules to rotate and is used to determine the identity of small molecules
49
Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy
VIBRATES the flexible bonds in organic molecules and is used to determine the functional group of an organic molecule
50
Ultraviolet (UV) Spectroscopy
EXCITES electrons to move to higher energy levels to identify organic compounds, especially aromatic ones (with benzene) in proteins and amino acids
51
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy
Detects signals from protons in HYDROGEN atoms and can be used to identify organic molecules very accurately
52
Mass spectrometry (MS)
fragments the molecules and measures the masses of each fragment, thereby identifying the original compound
53
Wavelength (λ)
measured from crest to crest or trough to trough of a light wave
54
Frequency (v)
number of cycles per second; measured in Hertz (Hz)
55
Speed of light (c)
3 x 10^8 m/s
56
Wavelength and Frequency are _ proportional
inversely
57
**All waves are. .
the SAME SPEED because they all travel at the speed of light
58
FORMULA: wavelength and frequency
c = λv
59
CONVERSION: nanometers to meters
1 nm = 10^-9 m
60
CONSTANT: Planck's equation E = hv
E = energy in J h = constant: 6.626E-34 J x s v = frequency in Hz
61
Photoelectric Effect
1. Highly intense low frequency light does NOT eject electrons, no matter how long it shines 2. When the threshold frequency is reached, electrons are ejected immediately 3. Increasing the intensity of the light with cause electrons to eject at a higher rate, but all at the same velocity 4. Increasing frequency of the light with increase the velocity of the ejected electrons
62
EQUATION: combined wave equation
E = hc/λ
63
Light behaves like a _ and a _
wave, particle
64
Drawing Photoelectron Spectroscopy (PES) graphs
1. greater ENC = shifted closer to nucleus 2. another energy level = shifted closer to nucleus 3. distance between energy levels remains constant 4. sublevels remain close
65
UV-VIS Spectroscopy
The amount of light absorbed by a solution can be used to determine the concentrations of the absorbing molecules in that solution, via the Beer-Lambert Law.
66
EQUATION: Beer-Lambert Law
Absorbance = εLc A = y-axis ε = molar absorptivity (constant for unique substances) L = length of cuvette/path length c = solution concentration (M)

AP Chemistry (4 decks)

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