Unit 2 - Chapter 1 - Pages 13 - 25

Question 0

What are the different levels of observation?

Answer 0

1. Naturalistic observation
2. Correlational research
3. Experimental research

Question 1

What is naturalistic observation?

Answer 1

naturalistic observation provides information about descriptions of behaviours. Such research is usually conducted in field settings (e.g., a park).

Question 2

What is correlational research?

Answer 2

Correlational research provides information about whether or not a relationship or association exists between variables. Questionnaire surveys, psychological testing, and archival data reviews can provide such information.

Question 3

What is experimental research?

Answer 3

Experimental research provides information about cause-effect relationships between variables, and is most often conducted in laboratories.

Question 4

What are experiments designed to

Answer 4

Experiments are designed to test hypotheses derived from theories. In science, theory and empirical observation go hand in hand. A scientific theory generally comprises an organized set of statements about the relationships among events. For example, the original formulation of the “frustration-aggression hypothesis” held that frustration always led to aggression and that aggression was always the result of being frustrated (Dollard et al., 1939). Theoretical concepts (or constructs), such as frustration and aggression, are not observable directly but are defined only indirectly by observable events. For example, intelligence is commonly defined as the score achieved on Wechsler’s Adult Intelligence Scale (3rd ed.) (WAIS-III).

Question 5

1. Describe the three processes in the discovery of regularities.

Answer 5

1. Description of behaviour
2. Discovering laws
3. Search for causes

Question 6

2. What is a law? Give an example of a law.

Answer 6

• A law is a statement that certain events are regularly associated with each other in an orderly way.
• Laws do not have to state cause-effect relationships betwen events; any regular relationship is a law
• An example is the “frustration-aggression law” … it states that as frustration increases so does aggression or the propensity for aggression

Question 7

3. Define a theory, both in broad terms and in strict terms.

Answer 7

• The ultimate goal of science is the development of a theory to explain the lawful relationships that exist in a particular field.

Broad Term Explanation:

• A theory is a set of of statements that organize a large body of facts (laws) into a single explanatory system
• A theory is also a set of statements about the relationships among variables

Strict Term Explanation:
- A theory is a statement or a set of statements about relationships among variables that includes at least one concept that is not directly observed but that is necessary to explain these relationships

Question 8

4. According to Sir Karl Popper, can a theory be proven true?

Answer 8

• Karl Popper said that a scientific theory can never be proven true because there are many false theories that can predict any given outcome
• No matter how many times the predicted result occurs, there might still be another theory that actually is the true one
• We make up theories and try to knock them down. The ones that survive the testing process can be tentatively accepted as true by a process of elimination

Question 9

5. What roles do theories play in science?

Answer 9

Theories play 3 crucial roles in the development of a science:

1. Organizing knowledge and explaining laws
2. Predicting new laws
3. Guiding research

Question 10

6. What is a scientific hypothesis? How is a hypothesis related to a theory?

Answer 10

A hypothesis is a statement assumed to be true for the purpose of testing its validity

Question 11

7. What is an operational definition?

Why is it desirable to use convergent operations?

Answer 11

Operationalism - Scientific concepts must be defined in terms of observable operations

Operational Definition - A statement of the precise meaning of a procedure or concept with an experiment

Converging Operations - Using different operational definitions to arrive at the meaning of a concept

Operationalism strictly limits the kinds of concepts with which science can deal. If there is no way of defining the concept according to observable operations, the concept is barred from science.