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AP Psychology > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is Hindsight Bias?

A

The tendency to believe that after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it

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2
Q

Provide an example of hindsight bias?

A

Example: If you tell people that separation will strengthen romantic attraction, people will find it unsurprising, while the opposite is also true

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3
Q

What is the cause of overconfidence?

A

Results from our bias to seek information that confirms our judgements

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4
Q

What is critical thinking?

A

Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Instead, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

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5
Q

Provide an example of critical thinking?

A

When critical thinkers look at global warming, they ask questions and observe the evidence and and see if it makes sense

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6
Q

What is the scientific method?

A

Process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis

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7
Q

What is a theory?

A

Explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize that we have observed.

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8
Q

What is a hypothesis?

A

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

- (A good theory is what produces these predictions that can be tested)

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9
Q

How can theories produce biased results?

A

EX: Having theories that sleep can improve memory can bias the results. We may perceive that sleepy people’s comments are less insightful, when in reality this may not be the result of a poor sleep

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10
Q

What is an operational definition?

A

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures/operations used in a research study. Ensures that there is little discrepancy/human error from experiment to experiment so that people can replicate it

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11
Q

What is replication?

A

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants to see if the basic finding extends to those circumstances/participants

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12
Q

What are case studies?

A

Used to examine an individual or group in depth in the hope of revealing things true of all of us; Used to observe and describe behavior;
Drawback: individual cases may be misleading if the individual is atypical, leading to false conclusions

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13
Q

What is Naturalistic Observation?

A

Watching and recording the natural behavior of many individuals
-Example: watching chimpanzee societies in the jungle
-Does’t explain behavior, but instead describes it
-Drawback: Problematic because of the Hawthorne effect (people’s behaviors change when they know they are being observed)
-

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14
Q

What are Surveys?

A
  • Finding out the attitudes or behaviors of a group, by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
  • Drawbacks: Answers depend on the way questions are worded and which respondents are chosen
  • A random sample must try to be chosen to fairly represent an entire population
  • Usually people who take the time to respond are passionate about it
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15
Q

What is a correlation coefficient?

A

Statistical index of the relationship between two variables

  • Helps figure out how closely two things vary together
  • They typically range from -1.0 to +1.0, and reveal the extent to which things relate.
  • (Closer to -1.0 or +1.0 means the stronger the correlation)
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16
Q

What is a scatterplot?

A

Graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. Slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates stronger correlation)

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17
Q

What do statistics ultimately help us do?

A

Statistics help observe what the naked eye can miss

-Often they show things that we would not be able to pick up on without the representation

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18
Q

No matter how strong the relationship between two variables is in a correlation, this does not prove that _____________________________________
-In other words, association does not prove ___________-

A

One variable directly causes the other; Causation

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19
Q

What is an illusory correlation?

A

The perception of a relationship where no correlation exists
-Ex: We usually remember the occurrence of two such events in sequence, like an unlikely call followed by the call, than a moment when the call does not follow this premonition

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20
Q

What is experimentation?

A
  • Experiments enable researchers to isolate the effects of one or more variables by manipulating the variables of interest and holding constant other variables
  • Deciphers whether a correlation is in fact a cause-effect
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21
Q

What is an experimental group?

A

Group that is exposed to the treatment/ the independent variable being tested.

22
Q

What is the control group?

A

Contrasts to the experimental group, as it is the group that is not exposed to the treatment. Helps evaluate the effects of the treatment

23
Q

How do researchers minimize difference between groups in experimentation?

A

researchers randomly assign people to the two conditions in the experiment

24
Q

What is a placebo effect?

A

Experimental results caused by expectations alone, any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or conditions, which the recipient assumes is an active agent

25
Q

What is the independent variable?

A

experimental factor that is manipulated; Variable whose effect is being studied
-(Can be measured independently of other factors, like students memories, intelligence, and age)

26
Q

What is the dependent variable?

A

Outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
-(Varies depending on what takes place during the experiment)

27
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A

A factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

28
Q

The important thing to remember about independent and dependent variables is that:

A

Ultimately, experiments aim to manipulate independent variables, measure the dependent variables, and allow random assignment to control all other variables

29
Q

What is the measure of central tendency?

A

Used to summarize data,a single score that represents a whole set of scores.

30
Q

What are the three different measures of central tendency that are used?

A

Mean, median, and mode

31
Q

What is the range?

A

Gap between the lowest and highest scores, provides a crude estimate of variation

32
Q

What is standard deviation?

A

Computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

  • Low standard deviation indicates that data points tend to be close to the mean
  • High standard deviation indicates the data points tend to be far from the mean
33
Q

What are inferential statistics?

A

Numerical data that allow one to generalize-to infer from sample data the probability of something being true.

34
Q

What is informed consent?

A

Ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

35
Q

What is debriefing?

A

Post Experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions to its participants

36
Q

What is the relationship between representative sampling and random sampling?

A

Random sampling is used to obtain a representative sample, which is a selected segment of a group that can represent the population as a whole

37
Q

What is the difference between positive correlation and negative correlation I the correlational method?

A

Positive correlation: Variables go in the same direction

Negative correlation: The variables go in opposite direction

38
Q

What is the Barnum Effect and how does it pose a risk to experiments?

A
  • The tendency for people to accept very general or vague characterizations of themselves and take them to be accurate
  • If the results of an experiment are vague, it can lead people to apply it to situations that it shouldn’t be applied to.
39
Q

What is the difference between applied vs basic research?

A
  • Applied- Research That has a clear, practical application (it can be used)
  • Basic Research-Explored questions that you may be curious about, but not intended to be immediately used
40
Q

What is a null hypothesis?

A

Hypothesis that says there is no statistical significance between the two variables in the hypothesis

41
Q

What is a population?

A

Those in a group being studied, from which samples ma y be drawn;

42
Q

What is a random sample?

A

sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

43
Q

What is a correlation?

A

Measure of the extent to which two variables change together, and how well either variable predicts the other.

44
Q

What is random assignment?

A

-Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing the preexisting difference between the different groups

45
Q

What is double-blind procedure?

A

neither the participants nor the research assistants who administer the drug and collect the data will know which group is receiving the treatment (prevents bias)

46
Q

What is the mode?

A

Most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

47
Q

What is the mean?

A

Arithmetic average of distribution, gotten by adding the scores and dividing by the number of scores

48
Q

What is the mediian?

A

Middle score in a distribution. Half the scores are above and half are below

49
Q

What is normal curve?

A

Symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean and few and fewer near the extremes

50
Q

What is statistical significance?

A

When sample averages are reliable and when differences between the samples are large, the difference has statistical significance

AP Psychology (6 decks)

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