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Biological Psychology > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Afferent Fibers

A

Sensory fibers conveying info towards the CNS

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2
Q

Efferent Fibers

A

Motor fibers conveying info from the CNS

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3
Q

Rostral (Anterior)

A

Towards the tip of the head

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4
Q

Caudal (Posterior)

A

Towards tip of tail

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5
Q

Dorsal

A

Upper surface of body (human back)`

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6
Q

Ventral

A

Bottom surface of body (human front)

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7
Q

Medial

A

Close to midline

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8
Q

Lateral

A

Farther from midline

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9
Q

Proximal

A

Close

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10
Q

Distal

A

Far

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11
Q

Spinal Cord

A

31 pairs of spinal nerves branch off, each split into dorsal and ventral roots. Dorsal (afferent) roots are sensory, ventral (efferent) are motor.

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12
Q

Dorsal Root Ganglia (DRG)

A

Sit of cell bodies for all sensory neurons entering the spinal cord, lies outside the CNS in the PNS.

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13
Q

Dermatomes

A

Specific body regions that receive and project info to/from specific spinal nerves in the CNS. Arranged in layers.

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14
Q

Cauda Equina

A

Long nerves from the spinal cord that dangle down and branch off into legs (the end of the spinal cord is at the branch). Location of epidural anesthetic.

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15
Q

White matter

A

Opaque bundle of myelinated axons (tract/fasciculus/pathway) running up and down spinal cord, outer region of cord.. Consists of sensory afferent fibers and motor efferent fibers.

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16
Q

Grey matter

A

4 lobed structure home to sensory (dorsal) and motor (ventral) function, made up of unmyelinated collection of cell bodies in the spinal cord. Occupies the central region of spinal cord.

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17
Q

Sensory Pathways in the Spinal Cord

A

First cell: 1st order neuron, the soma of which lies in the DRG and synapses onto 2nd order neuron in the CNS for somatosensory systems which synapses onto 3rd order neuron…

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18
Q

Decussation

A

Nerve fibers cross midline to innervate structures on the other side of the body (left brain controls right body, etc).
Contralateral when projection crosses (majority) ipsilateral when on same side. Redundancy in case of damage

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19
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A

Large, quick fibers that control touch, other somatosensory systems. Change phys. energy (pressure, stretch, vibration) into neural energy (transduction).
3 steps: 1) 1st order mech. enter spinal cord, ascend ipsilaterally in dorsal column w/o synapse. 2) Connect w/ 2nd order in brainstem. 3) Axons of 2nd order decussate in brain and project onto 3rd order in thalamus. Differs from structure of noci. to reduce cross-talk.

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20
Q

Nociceptors

A

Small conducting fibers activated by noxious stimuli (pain) which directly depolarizes nociceptors.
3 steps: 1) 1st order in DRG. 2) Synapse onto 2nd order in dorsal horn of spinal cord. 3) Axons of 2nd order decussate and project into brainstem onto 3rd order in thalamus/reticular formation. Differs from structure of mech. to reduce cross-talk.

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21
Q

Motor Pathways in Spinal Cord

A

Origin of motor commands is in cerebral cortex (motor cortex). Final common path is in ventral horn of spinal cord.

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22
Q

Lower Motor Neurons

A

Cell bodies lie in grey matter of ventral horn of spinal cord. Axons leave via ventral roots and synapse on skeletal muscle. Synapse is cholinergic (ACh), excitatory.

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23
Q

Upper Motor Neurons

A

Send two fiber bundles (axon bundles) down either side of spinal cord (pyramidal/extrapyramidal) to activate lower motor neurons.

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24
Q

Pyramidal System

A

Largest neurons in mammalian brain (30K in each primary motor cortex), lie in motor cortex (upper motor neuron). Tracts: axons that leave upper motor neurons and cross midline at Decussation of Pyramids (in brainstem, contralateral). Descend in white matter and insert into ventral horn to innervate lower motor neurons

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25
Q

Extrapyramidal System

A

Controls fine movement/coordination. Many sources of extra. motor neurons (mostly basal ganglia and brainstem nuclei). Interacts w/ pyramidal neurons in motor cortex and w/ lower motor neurons in spinal cord. Some contralateral, some ipsilateral.

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26
Q

Monosynaptic Reflex

A

Only one synapse involved. Each muscle has sensory structures and is innervated by lower motor neurons. Extrafusal muscle fibers do majority of work. Intrafusal muscle fiber contains stretch receptor: when stretched, sensory afferents activate synapses on lower motor neuron which activates extrafusal muscle -> contraction (stretch is always countered by contraction)

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27
Q

Inhibition of Antagonist Muscles

A

Every muscle has monosynaptic reflex, but muscles exist in antagonistic pairs of flexors/extensors (one activates, one relaxes). Keeps a balance of tension as there is an inhibitory interneuron in grey matter between two. Reflex tests thus test if issue is in spinal cord or brain.

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28
Q

Forebrain

A

Two cerebral hemispheres (subcortical and cortical). Subcortical: thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, limbic lobes. Cortical: frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes (biggest diff. between humans/others).

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29
Q

Brainstem

A

Medulla, pons, reticular formation, cerebellum

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30
Q

Reticular Formation

A

3 groups of cells that project to forebrain: Raphe Nuclei, Locus Coerulus, Substantia Nigra

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31
Q

Raphe Nuclei

A

Straddle midsagittal line in brainstem. #1 source of Serotonin in brain & spinal cord. Project rostrally and caudally.

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32
Q

Locus Coerulus

A

(Blue Spot) Small nucleus on either side of dorsal brainstem. #1 source of Norepinephrine in brain. Projects to cortical and subcortical regions.

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33
Q

Substantia Nigra

A

(Black Substance) Ventral brainstem. Major source of Dopamine in brain. Projects to basal ganglia structures (extrapyramidal motor behavior) and to limbic medial forebrain (reward).

34
Q

Basal Ganglia

A

Voluntary motor movement (controls output of neurons in primary motor cortex). (Striatum) Subcortical gray areas (cell bodies). Caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus contain neurons that make up extrapyramidal motor system. Pyramidal neurons send tracts directly through B.G. through internal capsule (sheet of white matter).

35
Q

Hypothalamus

A

Input from limbic and brainstem structures and output and pituitary gland via pituitary stalk.

36
Q

Pituitary Gland

A

“Master Gland”.
Posterior: axon terminals from neurons in H.T. release peptides (thyroid, adrenal cortex, testis/ovary, mammary glands, bone/muscle organs) directly into blood (P.G. surrounded by veins/arteries).
Anterior: release peptides (uterus, kidneys) into blood, are controlled by neurons in hypothalamus

37
Q

Thalamus

A

Most central (most rostral) structure in forebrain (“old brain”). Acts as series of relay nuclei as neurons of T. receive projectsion from many sensory modalities, project info to specific regions of cortex.

38
Q

Lateral Geniculate

A

Nuclei relay visual info from thalamus

39
Q

Medial Geniculate

A

Nuclei relay auditory info from thalamus

40
Q

Ventralposterior Lateral and Medial

A

Nuclei relay somatosensory info from thalamus

41
Q

Neocortex

A

Two hemispheres divided into 4 lobes each w/ diff. function. Convoluted anatomy: crests (gyrus) and valleys (sulcus) -> increased surface area.

42
Q

Frontal Lobe of Neocortex

A

Associated with Motor function. Cortex rostral to central sulcus. Precentral gyrus (immediately rostral to central sulcus) is Primary Motor Cortex. Rostral pole may play role in ideation/cognition. Larger, more elaborate in humans than other primates.

43
Q

Parietal Lobe of Neocortex

A

Cortex caudal to central sulcus. Postcentral gyrus (immediately caudal to central sulcus) is Primary Somatosensory Cortex

44
Q

Occipital Lobe of Neocortex

A

Caudal tip of skull (occiput). Primary visual cortex

45
Q

Temporal Lobe of Neocortex

A

Separated by lateral sulcus. Primary Auditory Cortex

46
Q

Meninges & Blood-Brain Barrier

A

3 membranes insulating brain & cord from mechanical disturbances. Closest to CNS: Pia matter (thin, clear, right on surface) and arachnoid membranes (fluid filled tissue shock absorbers). Dura matter: tough leathery membrane beneath bone.
Blood-Brain Barrier: Insulate blood vessels of brain from brain tissue. Isolated brain from perturbation in blood chemistry.

47
Q

General Principles of Sensory Systems

A
  1. Sensory systems filter stimuli to concentrate on novel stimuli (adaptation)
  2. Intensity of stimulus is represent by action potential frequency
  3. Each sensory system in the brain has sub-cortical and cortical structures devoted to that sensory function
48
Q

Generator Potentials

A

Result of transduction after depolarization of most peripheral path of membrane on sensory neurites extending from DRG. Graded in amplitude by strength of stimulus, amplitude converted into frequency (Intensity = Frequency of A.P.). Self-terminates to adapt to continuous stimulus (think lack of pain in sitting)

49
Q

Sensory Homunculus

A

Neural representation of the body in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe. While topographically faithful (feet connect to legs to torso, etc), more brain space given to face, lips, hands, genitals than other areas. More space = More sensitive

50
Q

Motor Homunculus

A

Neural representation of the body in the precentral gyrus of the parietal lobe (first rostral fold to central sulcus). While topographically faithful (feet connect to legs to torso, etc), more brain space/pyramidal motor neurons given to face, tongue, hands, throat than other areas. More space = More controllable

51
Q

Outer Ear

A

Pinna: flaps of skin and cartilage that focus sound waves.

Eardrum/Tympanic Membrane: separates the outer from middle ear

52
Q

Middle Ear

A

Sound vibrations cause compression of tympanic membrane which moves malleus (mallet, 1st of 3 bones). Mallet strikes incus (anvil), which vibrates stapes (stirrup). Deforms the oval window, a membrane that separates the air-filled middle ear from fluid-filled inner ear. Sound waves -> Air waves -> Fluid waves

53
Q

Inner Ear

A

Cochlea and vestibular apparatus. Deformation of oval window moves fluid, structures in Scala Media in cochlea.

54
Q

Basiliar Membrane

A

Resonant structure within cochlear duct that houses neurons that transduce sound energy into neural energy by bending sterocilia on the hair cell, activating or inhibiting the associated neurite.

55
Q

Stereocilia

A

Tiny hairs on the inner hair cell that bend to activate neural sensation of audition. Bend one way: Ca++ flux into neurite (depolarization and activation). Other way: K+ flux out of neurite (hyperpolarization and inhibition)

56
Q

Vestibular System

A

Sense of balance and angular movements with respect to gravity determined by utricle ad saccule. X-, Y-, and Z- axis loops filled with hair cells and stereocilia bent by movement of otoliths (CaCO3) which starts generator potential in hair cells.

57
Q

Primary Motor Cortex Projections

A

Axons from neurons in motor cortex pass caudally in S.C. toward lower motor neuron pools where they insert into the ventral horn and synapse w/ lower motor neurons to produce localized movements (not in hands, those controlled directly from brain). Few executive neurons affect many lower neurons (space conservation in brain)

58
Q

Stroke and Basal Ganglia Disease

A

Internal capsule/striatum have arterioles (fine arteries) and venules (fine veins) which are vulnerable to blockage -> stroke.
Consequences: Ischemia (loss of blood flow), Hypoxia (inadequate oxygen), Anoxia (absence of oxygen), Infarct (tissue damage). Can cause cell death -> hemiplegia (partial paralysis on contralateral side of body, loss of sensory functions)

59
Q

Parkinson’s Disease

A

Deficiency in striatal DA levels secreted by Substantia Nigra neurons. Characterized by inability to initiate movement (akinesia), tremors, ahedonia (loss of feeling/emotion). Treatment: L-Dopa, transplant of dopaminergic tissue (controversial), early identification and intervention

60
Q

Huntington’s Disease

A

Deficiency in striatal cells secreting ACh and GABA. Symptoms: excessive, undesired movements (choreas), lack of muscle tone. Genetic disorder with no current effective therapy.

61
Q

Cerebellum

A

Hindbrain structure that exerts precise and coordinated yet limited influence over extrapyramidal system. 2nd line of motor control, assists B.G..
Structures: Vestibulocerebellum (balance, eye movement. Oldest). Spinocerebellum (Moto execution, bulk of human cerebellum). Corticocerebellum (Motor planning)

62
Q

Epilepsy and the Importance of Inhibition

A

Epilepsy is result of lack of inhibition/GABA antagonists in cerebrum. Focal epilepsy: seizures in one part of body (unbounded excitation in specific brain region). Generalized Epilepsy: whole body seizures. Benzos help with epilepsy.

63
Q

Operational Definition of Pleasure

A

A stimulus that an animal will work to obtain. Usually linked to concept of reward.

64
Q

Operation Definition of Pain

A

Noxious: Causing tissue damage. Objectionable: No tissue damage, but still unpleasant (painful stimulus like heat source for rat tail flick-test)

65
Q

Olds & Milner

A

Experiment in the 50’s that found that animals would perform an operant response when linked to an electrode on various “pleasure centers” of the brain.

66
Q

Pleasure Circuits in the Brain

A

Dopamine circuit and endogenous opiate circuit

67
Q

Medial Forebrain Bundle (MFB)

A

Dense fiber tract releasing dopamine that projects from substantia nigra (nigrostriatial pathway to striatum (motor behavior) & ventral tegmentum to forebrain (cyngulate gyrus (limbic system), septum, amygdala, olfactory and frontal neocortex, parts of B.G., and nucleus accumbens) which produced the highest rate of self-stimulation at lower electrical intensities in Olds & Milner.

68
Q

Nucleus Accumbens (NAc)

A

Key site in reward mechanisms. Recipient of VTA dopamine projections. Injections of DA antagonists into this area blocks rewards quality of MFB stimulation

69
Q

Ascending Nocicepter Systems in Pain

A

Primary nociceptor cells in the DRG that project into the dorsal horn of the spinal cord from the periphery. Mechanical damage depolarizes peripheral neurites sending signal to DRG neurons

70
Q

Inflammation

A

Release of histamine, bradykinin, prostaglandin, and serotonin upon tissue damage which spreads pain/hyperalgesia. Spreads inflammation and nociceptor discharge to adjacent cells to keep the injured from using the hurt area.

71
Q

C-fibers

A

Small unmyelinated fibers that slowly carry pain info that terminate in superficial aspects of the dorsal horn onto secondary nociceptor cells

72
Q

A-delta Fibers

A

Small myelinated fibers that slowly carry pain info that terminate in superficial and deeper aspects of the dorsal horn onto secondary nociceptor cells

73
Q

Substance P

A

Peptide located heavily in dorsal horn of S.C. responsible for pain. Product of C- and A-delta fibers which terminate in the dorsal horn

74
Q

Nociceptive Specific Cells

A

Second order nociceptor cells superficially in the dorsal horn of the S.C. that receive contacts from A-delta and C-fibers. Only responds to noxious stimuli (sharp pain).

75
Q

Wide Dynamic Rang Cells

A

Second order nociceptor cells deep in the dorsal horn of the S.C. that receive contacts from A-delta fiber receptors and mechanoreceptors (pressure pain).

76
Q

Spinothalamic Tract of Nociception

A

Axons of second-order nociceptor cells that decussate in the spinal cord and ascend to the brainstem providing information on pain context and affect

77
Q

Neospinothalamic Tract of Nociception

A

Axons of second-order nociceptor cells that decussate in the spinal cord and ascend to the brainstem providing information on pain location and sensation.

78
Q

Descending Analgesia Systems (Pain Gate)

A

Areas of the brain that render animals analgesic (unresponsive to noxious stimuli). Involves the raphe nucleus and the periaqueductal gray region.

79
Q

Enkephalins

A

Opioid 5-amino peptide that acts as an analgesic mediator in the spinal cord and adrenal gland. Colocalizes with Substance P (nociceptors) in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord. Similar chemical makeup as endorphins (same first 5 aminos). Acts by presynaptically inhibiting Substance P release by blocking Ca++ channels when not itself inhibited by serotonin from Raphe Nucleus.

80
Q

Endorphins

A

Opioid 31-amino peptide that acts as an analgesic mediator in the pituitary gland and brain. Similar chemical makeup as enkephalins (same first 5 aminos)

81
Q

Opioid Peptide Action

A

Opioid signal inhibits calcium influx into presynaptic terminal -> deactivates presynaptic potential -> inhibition of release of Substance P. Blocked to allow for pain by serotonin from Raphe Nucleus. Allowed to create analgesia when PAG cells inhibited by opiates.

82
Q

Ventral Tegmentum (VTA)

A

Mesocortical and mesolimbic pathways to neocortex and limbic systems (reward). Origin of dopamine systems

Biological Psychology (3 decks)

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