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Developmental Biology > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is meiosis one?

A
  • divides nucleus
  • aka karyokinesis
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2
Q

What are the phases of meiosis one?

A

interphase
early prophase
mid prophase 1
late prophase 1
metaphase 1
anaphase 1
telophase 1

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3
Q

What happens in interphase?

A
  • no cell division just DNA replication
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4
Q

What happens during metaphase one?

A

chromosomes at metaphase plate

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5
Q

What happens at telophase 1?

A

reduction of gene complexity complete

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6
Q

What are the phases of meiosis 2?

A

metaphase 2
anaphase 2
telophase 2

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7
Q

What is the difference between mitosis and meiosis?

A
  • meiosis =4 unidentical gamete haploids
  • mitosis = 2 identical diploid daughter cells
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8
Q

What happens in oogenesis?

A
  • one egg and formation of polar bodies
  • polar bodies degrade and get recycled
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9
Q

What is the cycle of an egg?

A
  • germ cell
  • oogonium
  • meiosis 1
    pauses in prophase 1 during late diplotene and becomes a dictyate stage
  • primary oocyte
  • resumption of meiosis at puberty
  • secondary oocyte and first polar body
    meiosis pauses at metaphase 2
  • fertilization resumes meiosis
  • ootide
  • ovum where polar bodies degrade
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10
Q

What does straw 8 do in female meiosis?

A
  • allows germ cell to enter meiosis
  • Retinoic acid to stra8 to meiosis
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11
Q

What does stra8 do in males?

A
  • retenoic acid inhibited by cyp instead of going to straw 8
  • also inhibited by nanos to stop meiosis
  • stra 8 is inhbited by cyp26b1 in males, if no cypb nanos 2 inhibits stra8
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12
Q

What happens if there is cyb26b1 in females?

A
  • turn into males during meiosis
  • diet to vitamin a
  • adh
  • retinal to raidh
  • retinoic acid
  • cypb261
  • oxidized A
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13
Q

What happens during ovulation?

A
  • forms corpus lutea
  • egg is in graafian follicle with a small amount of cells surrounding it
  • thecal cells can secrete androgen hormone
  • granulosa cell secrete aromatase enzyme
  • aromatase takes testosterone and makes estradiol
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14
Q

what is the ovulatory cycle?

A
  • gnrh to fsh to lh to uterine cycle or ovulation
  • ovulation to corpa lutea to estradiol to inhibition to progesterone
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15
Q

What is the male cycle?

A
  • gnrh to fsh to lh to spermatogenesis
  • much faster cycle
  • all four germ cells maintained during spermatogenesis
  • no complete karyokenesis and cytoplasmic bridges
  • not really polar bodies
  • must self renew
  • lots of different types of spermatogonia stem cells
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16
Q

How many types of spermatonial stem cells are there?

A

lots

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17
Q

What is sperm flagellum?

A

microtubial based
motile
basal dependent

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18
Q

What do acrosomes do?

A
  • golgi derivatives that breaks down the cells surrounding the egg
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19
Q

Where do cumulus cells come from?

A

granulosa cells

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20
Q

What are environmental queues in aquatic organisms?

A

temp and current

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21
Q

What does sperm egg binding cause?

A

Ca2+ goes in and triggers sperm to go to the peptide and egg

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22
Q

What is the receptor in sea urchin fertilizaiton?

A
  • Receptor guanine cyclase
  • binds to Calcium receptor in sperm
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23
Q

What does the acrosome do when it binds?

A
  • activates it, releases enzyes to break down the jelly layer of egg and exposing bindin receptor
  • bindin then binds and sperm and egg undergo fusion
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24
Q

What are the problems with fusion?

A
  • has to overcome thermodynamic problems
  • sea urchins have gactin that goes to f- actin
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25
Q

How does the egg cause acrosomal species specific reactions?

A
  • jelly coat is species specific
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26
Q

How do sea urchins avoid multi-sperm fertilization?

A
  • embryo will die because chromosomes don’t know where to go
  • salt comes in and changes egg membrane and stops multi-binding
  • doesn’t happen in internal fertilizers because no species specification is needed
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27
Q

What is a slow block to polyspermy?

A
  • fertilization envelope forms around egg and blocks it from more sperm
  • unfertilized egg has villi covering membrane bound organelles and cortical granules below plasma membrane
  • once spem binds the villi dissolves and the cgst creates h202 creating ovop and creatig hardening of fertilization envelope
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28
Q

How does the ER block multi-fertilization?

A
  • ER with Ca2+ surrounds egg, when sperm binds and envelope expands, Ca2+ releases over egg and activates egg
  • sperm then activates PLC which then activates Pip2 and cleaves to Dag releasing IP3 which releases more Ca2+
  • Ca2+ activates egg, speeds up fertilization envelope formation activates Na+ H+ gates
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29
Q

What are the steps to mammilian fertilization?

A
  1. capacitation leading to the hyperactivation of ferm
  2. sperm senses and follows progesterone gradients
  3. undergos acrosome reaction
  4. fuse with egg plasma membrane
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30
Q

What happens when the egg undergoes the acrosome reaction?

A
  • zona pellicula mediated event
  • zona pellicula has three zones and the glycoproteins help with this
  • protiolytic enzymes break down egg barrier
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31
Q

How does the sperm fuse with the egg plasma membrane?

A
  • izumo and juno lower themodynamic barriers and content mixing
  • the male mitochondria is destroyed and ovastacin protease found in ocrtical granules
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32
Q

What are izumo and juno?

A
  • izumo is on sperm and juno is the receptor on egg
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33
Q

What is the zinc spark?

A
  • lasts less than 40 seconds
  • blocks acrosomal enzymes
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34
Q

How do sea urchins have 5 fold symmetry?

A
  • because of holoblastic and radial cleavage
  • 2 meridional and then equatorial so 3 total symmetry axis
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35
Q

Are sea urchins chemically equal?

A
  • biochemically unequal but same genetic info
  • there is originally no zygotic info so everything is determined by mom
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36
Q

What does meiosis create in sea urchins?

A
  • vegital poles create macromere and micromere
  • creates cells with unique cell info
  • by the end of there is only 1 axis of symmetry and equivalent info in further divisions
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37
Q

What is the archaenteron?

A

primitive stomach

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38
Q

What is a blastocoel?

A
  • hollow ball that helps form germ layers and organs
  • present in deuterostomes
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39
Q

What is a pleuteus?

A
  • sea urchin larvae
40
Q

How are sea urchins divided?

A
  • animal 1/2 of equatorial creates dorsal blastula
  • vegetal 1/2 creates embryo that couldn’t move or form body
41
Q

What is in the vegital half of a sea urchin?

A
  • creates embryo that couldn’t move or form body
  • has maternal determinant: disshevled leading to beta catenin
42
Q

What does disheveled do in sea urchins?

A
  • in vegetal half
  • blocks destruction complex to save beta catenin
  • disheveled blocks gsk3 which blocks beta catenin
43
Q

What does licl do?

A
  • blocks gsk3 which blocks beta catenin
  • more licl= more beta catenin
44
Q

What does beta catenin do?

A
  • helps form adherens junction but is localized to vegital pole in micromeres and veg 2 cells
45
Q

What are micromere?

A
  • cell autonomous
46
Q

What is ingression?

A
  • an epithelial to mesenchymal transition
  • happens to a cell as they respond to signals
  • micromeres become primary mesenchymal cells
47
Q

What does CSPG cause?

A
  • water absorption and expansions of lamina to push cells to blastocoel
48
Q

What is a proteoglycan?

A

protein core with millions of sugars

49
Q

What is a hydroscopic cell?

A
  • love to bind water
50
Q

What do PMCS do?

A
  • go to regions of FGF expression since micromeres have FGF receptors that cause outlining of cells
  • PMCs express B-cat and down regulate it so its no longer in the PMCs
  • PMCs then form syncytium which allows the to create their skeleton
51
Q

What is the first example of gastrulation?

A
  • PMCs forming syncytium which allows them to create their ckeleton
52
Q

What does gastrulation do?

A
  • invagination
  • cell shape changes/ rearrangements
  • filopodial extensions
  • convergent extension
53
Q

How do archenteron form?

A
  • goes through convergent extensions to form tube like elongation
  • lamellipodia and filipodia are found in mesenchymal cells and localize towards direction of movement
54
Q

What does the amniote egg for?

A
  • for things that aren’t 100% in water
  • allows gas exchange without dehydration
55
Q

What does frog sperm contribute?

A
  • centriole
56
Q

Where does fertilization occur?

A
  • animal hemisphere
57
Q

What does fertilization do?

A
  • specified dorsal-ventral axis
  • initiates cortical rotation by microtubules
  • specifies that gastrulation will occur on dorsal side
58
Q

What happens during cortical rotation?

A
  • reorganization of cytoskeleton
  • dyenin goes towards negative end from centriole
  • kinesin goes towards positive end from centriole
  • vegital 1/2 kinesin gives illusion of movement
  • kinesin uses ATP to generate force and they are carbocarriers
59
Q

What is the goal of cortical rotation?

A
  • accumulate beta cat next to dorsal pole
  • create first cleavage plane
60
Q

Where does gastrulation occur?

A
  • in grey crescent
61
Q

What do dissheveled and beta cat do?

A
  • allow activation of gene transcription with WNT
  • WNT in sea urchins forms micromeres and autonomous specification
  • WNT in frog creates dorsal ventral polarity
62
Q

What do disshevled and GBP do in grogs?

A
  • prevent beta catenin degradation in vegetal area
63
Q

How does cleavage occur in frogs?

A
  • homoblastic complete cleavage radially displaced towards animal pole
  • animal is cleaved before vegetal
  • vegital pole is denser
  • 1st equatorial cleaveage 3 occurs before 2 meridional cleavages 1+2
64
Q

Describe early cleavage?

A
  • reductive and fast
65
Q

What is cdk1 used for?

A
  • phosphorylation
66
Q

What is weel for?

A

to turn off phosphorylation

67
Q

What is cdc25a used for?

A
  • maternally deposited to tell cell how to cleave
  • goes s to m for the first few cycles
68
Q

What is a blastocoel filled with?

A
  • water and lots of protein
  • bottle cells form within
  • constricts on 1 side not the other, starts invagination and goes into blastocoel
69
Q

What do alpha tubules do?

A
  • organize microtubules on corticle area ( cell edge)
  • bottle becomes archaeon
70
Q

What is the bottle?

A
  • becomes archaeon
  • actin and myosin contract and form rossets
  • forms dorsal blastopore lip where b cat used to be allows for the formation of 3 germ layers
71
Q

What happens if beta catenin is at the dorsal end?

A
  • transplanted to the other side and another lip forms
  • like a mirror image
  • proved by conditional cells in the spman hilde experiment
72
Q

What is the dorsal lip?

A
  • organizer and a primary induction event helped by the nicoup center
  • initiates gastrulation
  • specifies dorsal mesoderm from prechordal plate and chorda mesoderm
  • dorsalizes ectoderm to aquire neural fate
  • dorsalizes adjacent mesoderm and paraxial mesoderm instead of ventral mesoderm
  • specificies pharyngeal endoderm
73
Q

How does the lip effect surrounding tissues?

A
  • releases morphogens
  • time carefully, need to preform translocation before cell is specified
  • once cells start talking to eachother their fate is determined
74
Q

What is a psuedogene?

A
  • mutations making protein inactive
  • 1 protein to 1 fully working protein and 1 inactive protein
75
Q

What is a subfunctioning protien?

A
  • goes from 1 fully functioning protein to 2 1/2 functioning proteins
76
Q

What is neofunctionalization?

A
  • creates a protein with a totally new function
77
Q

What are the ways proteins can be replicated?

A
  • neofunctionalization
  • subfunctions
  • psuedogenes
78
Q

How do two of the same thing form?

A
  • beta catenin is orgalization and beta catenin stabelization causes TF cascade
  • utilizes chordin, noggin, goosecoid, cerebrus, siamus, xenopus
  • heavy emphasis on veg T and Vg1
79
Q

What do veg t and vg1 do?

A
  • beta catenin can’t work alone to specify organizer
  • veg t is the transcription factor and vg 1 is the ligand
  • activates smad phosphorylation allowing for smad to enter nucleus due to the phosphorylated AA changing folding
  • when smad enters nucelus it starts transcripiton
80
Q

What does vegT do without b-cat?

A
  • prevents formation of organizer on presumptive ventral side
81
Q

What happens when b-catenin is low?

A
  • different mesoderm formations
82
Q

What is special about the endoderm?

A
  • it has inductive properties to make cells in marginal zone form mesoderm
83
Q

If you slice an egg will it create 2 functioning offspring?

A
  • depends on where you slice it
84
Q

What does the ectoderm form?

A
  • nervous system
85
Q

What does the endoderm form?

A

pharynx

86
Q

What does the anterior mesoderm form?

A
  • head muscle and bone
87
Q

What does the posterior mesoderm form?

A
  • nodalchord
88
Q

How is the brain formed?

A
  • no wnt
  • no BMP
  • chordin
  • noggin
  • cerebrus
89
Q

How is the spinal chord formed

A
  • WNT
  • Noggin
  • chordin
  • no BMP
  • NO cerebrus
90
Q

How is the majority of the embryo formed?

A
  • WNT
  • BMP
  • No chordin
  • no noggin
  • no cerebrum
91
Q

What does cerebrus do?

A
  • inhiits wnt which kinda leads to BMP
92
Q

What does chordin and noggin do?

A
  • inhibits BMP
93
Q

What is sox 2 good for?

A
  • neural formation
94
Q

What happens if chordin and noggin are knocked down by morpholino?

A
  • no neural markers
95
Q

What is morpholino?

A
  • DNA backbone that can’t be cleaved
96
Q

What happens when BMP is knocked down by mopholino?

A
  • no midline
  • sox-2 is everywhere
  • anti-dorsalizing meaning sox 2 gets into ventral 1/2

Developmental Biology (3 decks)

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