Unit 2 Flashcards
Epigenetic factors
influence development. integration/ interaction of nature and nurture.
Genetics: chromosomes, Genes, and Genome
chromosomes- 23 pairs inside the cell, made up of DNA.
genes- segments of chromosomes, instructions that influence expression.
genome- all of the DNA in an organism.
evolutionary theories
suggest that genetic and physiological processes underlie human behaviour
phenotype
characteristics that we can observe (expression).
genotypes influence phenotype.
genotype
genetic information that determines or influences our characteristics
Genotypes influence phenotype.
dominant-recessive pattern of inheritance.
-only one dominant gene is needed to influence phenotype
-two recessive genes are needed
polygenic inheritance
many genes influences a trait
multi-factorial inheritance
affected by genes and the environment
ex- height- polygenic and multi-factorial
mitochondrial inheritance
genes from the mother egg and not from the father sperm
ex- blindess
epigenetic marker
regulate gene expression (our phenotype) by signalling some genes to “turn on: and others to “turn off”
-can be passes on to other generations
ex-changes to liver, heart, brain tissue
gene expression
turn on- of epigentics
gene silencing
turn off- of epigentics
evolutionary theories
-genetically inherited cognitive and social characteristics evolved through natural selection
-inherited patterns affect every aspect of our lives
Nativism
-unique genetic traits manifest in all members of the species
-regardless of small differences in their environments
ethology
-genetically determined survival behaviour
-assumed to have evolved through natural selection. ex- crying gene
-the study of animal behaviour and how they survive through the techniques of natural selection
behaviour genetics
-genetic influences when relations are more similar than those who are unrealted
or
-the study on how the manner in which genetic variations influence eachother
ex- intelligence, shyness, aggressiveness
sociobiology
-gene that aid group survival
-best chance for groups
-the study of the biological basis of social behaviour in an organism
evolutionary developments psychology
-genetically inherited cognitive and social characteristics that promote survival and adaptation
-appear at different times across the lifespan
-newborns are genetically programmed to learn and develop. ex- to learn a language and recognize factors
-different behaviours are needed later in life to adapt and survive
evolutionary prenatal programming and adult health and disease
-predictive-adaptive responses
-prenate uses info from the current environment to adjust physiology
ex- undernutrition= metabolic adjustments
evaluation of biology and evolutionary theories
-beneficial in the treatment of multifactorial diseases. ex- heart disease, cancer
-external and personal factors influence epigenetic mechanisms
- important for early intervention
-critics claim that role of the ENVIRONMENT IS UNDERESTIMATED
-theories are difficult to prove
- behaviours can be modified by experience and learning, even if based in evolution
psychoanalytic theorists
developmental change happens because internal drives and emotions affect behaviour
Frueds psychosexual theory
-behaviour is determined by both conscious and unconscious processes
-three parts of personality:
–id: instinctual drives for physical pleasure present at birth
–ego: thinking (conscious) part of our personality
–superego: moral judge, norms and values of our family and of society
Frueds stages of psychosexual development
Oral
anal
phallic
latency
genital
oral
- Age0-1
-mouth, lips, tonque - weaning; oral behaviour, such as smoking, overeating, passivity, ad gullibility
anal
-age 2-3
-anus
-toilet training
-orderliness, parsimoniousness, obstinacy, or the opposite
phallic
-age 4-5
-genitals
-Oedipus and Electra complexes
-vanity, recklessness, or the opposite
latency
-age 6-12
-no specific area
-development of defence mechanisms
-none. fixation does not normally occur at this stage
genital
-age 13-18
-genitals
-more sexual intimacy
-adults who have successfully integrated earlier stages should emerge with a sincere interest in others and mature sexually
Erikson’s psychosocial theory
-development results from the interaction between inner instinct and cultural demands
-development occurs across the entire lifespan in psychosocial stages
-one must move through and successfully resolve eight “crises” or “dilemmas”
-relationships affect development
evaluation of psychoanalytic theories: strengths and weaknesses
five strengths:
1. focus on emotional quality of the earliest relationship with caregivers
2. emphasizes that a child needs change with age and family interactions is crucial
3. provide concepts– such as unconscious, ego, identity
4. invented psychotherapy
5. emphasize development into adulthood
weakness:
-hard to test and measure
-overemphasis on sexual feelings
the humanistic alternative
-the most important internal drive is SELF-ACTUALIZATION
-motivation to achieve ones full potential
-Abraham Maslow is the key figure in humanistic theory
-needs hierarchy: meet each level of needs from bottom of the pyramid to the top
Maslow’s hierarchy
- physiological needs
- safety needs
3.love and belongingness needs
4.esteem needs
5.need for self-actualization
Carl rogers humanistic alternative
-capacity of each of us to become a “fully functioning person”
-without guilt or distorting defences
strength:
inherent optimism- never too late to overcome early conditioning or resolve dilemmas if motivated
weakness:
hard to test and measure
learning theories
-experiences in the environment shape the child
-behaviour shaped by processes such as classical and operant conditioning
Pavlovs classical conditioning
-classical conditioning: making association
1. when an unconditioned stimulus prompts an automatic or unconditioned response
2. new stimulus is presented just before/ at the same time as the unconditioned stimulus
3. learn to associate it with unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response
4. neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus leading to conditioned response in isolation
ex- dog learning to take beer out of the fridge from a guy saying “beer” or ringing a bell
Skinners operant conditioning
-reinforcement
–consequence following a behaviour to affect reoccurrence
positive reinforcement
–adding a consequence that increases the probability of an action being repeated
negative reinforcement
–removal of a consequence that increases the probability of an action being repeated
punishment
behaviour stops because of a consequence
extinction
decrease in behaviour after repeated non-reinforcement
consequence
could be taking away something pleasant or adding something unpleasant
shaping
learn a complex behaviour through the reinforcement of intermediate steps
-when a child masters a step, the reinforcement for the previous step is discontinued
evaluation of learning theories
implications of learning theories:
-can explain consistency and change
-optimistic about behavioural change
-provide an accurate picture of how many behaviours are learned
-The traditional approach is not developmental
–does not tell us much about age-related changes
–banduras does a better job of this
cognitive theories
emphasize mental aspects of development, such as logic and memory
Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory
-children learn about the world by conducting little “experiments” to test their understanding
piagets: schemes
-children make sense of the world through categories of related events, objects, and knowledge called schemes
-schemes change from physical, to functional, conceptual, and abstract as the child develops
Piagets: adaptation
adapt to their environment as they develop by adding and refining their schemes
Piagets development stages
sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational
Piaget: sensorimotor
ages- birth to 18 months
-baby understand the world through her senses and her motor actions; uses simple symbols, such as single words and pretend play, near the end of this period
Piaget: preoperational
ages- 18 months to 6 years
-by age 2 the child can use symbols both to think and to communicate; they develop the abilities to take others point of view, classify objects, and use simple logic by the end of this stage
Piaget: concrete operational
ages- 6 years to 12 years
-the child’s logic take a great leap forward with the development of new internal operations, such as conversations and class inclusion, but is still tied to the known world; by the end of the period, they can reason about simple “what if” questions
Piaget: formal operational
ages- 12+ years
-the child begins to manipulate ideas as well as objects; they think hypothetically and, by adulthood, can easily manage a variety of “what if” questions; they greatly improve their ability to organize ideas and objects mentally
Piagets: assimilation
new experiences fit into existing schemes
Piaget: accommodation
schemes must be modified as a consequence of new experinces
Piaget: equilibrium
a balance between assimilation and accommodation
Piaget: disequilibrium
exists when more accommodation is occurring than assimilation
Information processing theory
use the computer as a model of human thinking
memory:
encoding- organizing information to be stored
storage- keeping information
retrieval-accessing information from memory
Vygotsky socio-cultural theory; scaffolding and zone of proximal development
-complex forms of thinking originate in social interaction
-cognitive learning guided adults or more skilled children
Scaffolding:
-must gain and keep the child’s attention
-model best strategy
-adapt the whole process to the developmental level
zone of proximal development:
–tasks that are too hard for the child to do alone, but can manage with guidance
Bandura social-cognitive theory: observational learning
-learning does not always require reinforcement
Observational learning/modelling:
-learning from watching others
Reciprocal determinism:
-human development is based on: personal, behavioural ,environmental factors
self-efficacy:
-belief in own capacity to perform
Evaluation of cognitive theories
Piaget:
-forced psychologists to think about child development in a new way
-developed innovative methods, but, the process seems to be less stage-like than Piaget proposed
-underestimated capabilities
Information processing:
-human thinking is more complex than a computer
sociocultural:
-scaffolding in preschool= higher levels in elementary school
social cognitive:
-relates cognition to the environment
Critics, in general, say cognitive theories:
-ignore emotions, imagination and creativity
-underplay the effects of our physical and social surroundings
system theory: integrated, dynamic, and adaptive
system approach: (integrated)
-view that personal and external factors from a dynamic integrated system
Holism: (dynamic)
- the whole is primary and often greater than the sum of its parts
-development in relation to changes in any part of the whole dynamic system (personal and external)
Wellness: (adaptive)
-the result of adaptive adjustment
Bronfenbrenners bioecological system theory
-development through relationships between people and their environment or contexts
-classifies individual and contextual variables and specifies how they interact
-uses a model of concentric circles to describe the interrelationships
Bronfenbrenners bioecological system theory: 5 systems
- Marcosystem: outermost circle. cultural context- values and beliefs of the culture
- exosystem: socio-economic context- institutions that affect development indirectly
- mesosystem: interconnections between the microsystem. relationship with the microsystem
- microsystem: immediate context- variables directly exposed to– bed, toys
- chronosystem- temporal changes/ events
THIS SYSTEM IS BIDIRECTIONAL
eclecticism: multiple approaches
-uses multiple theoretical approaches to explain and study human development
-builds on ideas from several sources
-avoid rigid adherences to a single theory
-such as frued and skinner
evaluation of system theories
-bronfenbrenners greatest contribution: emphasis on interactions and the complexity of individual and contextual variables
eclectic approach: more comprehensive theories and may be more externally valid
weakness: complexity
