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Unit 2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the theories/origins of sex differences?

A
  • Socialization and Social Roles
  • Hormonal theories
  • evolutionary psychology theory
  • an integrated theoretical perspective
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2
Q

What is the socialzation theory:

A

Boys and girls become different because boys are reinforced by parents, teachers, and media for being “masculine,” and girls for being “feminine”

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3
Q

What is Bandura’s social learning theory:

A

Boys and girls learn by observing behaviors of same-sex others and repeating the behaviors that are rewarded, avoiding / diminishing the expression of behaviors that are discouraged..

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4
Q

What are the hormonal theories?

A

Hormonal, physiological differences cause boys and girls to diverge over development

Following puberty, there is little overlap in the levels of circulating testosterone (with men having about 10 times more than women)

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5
Q

What is the evolutionary psychology thoery?

A

Sexes are predicted to differ only in those domains in which people are recurrently faced with different adaptive problems (problems must be solved to survive and reproduce)

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6
Q

What is the integreated theoretical perspective?

A

Integrated theory of sex differences would include all levels of analysis into account (socialization, hormonal, & evolutionary), because they are compatible

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7
Q

What domains of sex differences?

A

Domains that show larger sex differences include assertiveness, aggressiveness, interest in casual sex, but there is an overlap in each domain

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8
Q

What revealed the universslity of generder stereotypes?

A

Cross-cultural work

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9
Q

In what year was there a rise and fall of concept of androgyny?

A

1970s

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10
Q

What book was published in 1974 and who wrote it?

A

The Psychology of Sex Difference
by Maccoby and Jacklyn

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11
Q

What did The Psychology of Sex Difference do to the study of sex differences?

A
  • Set off an avalanche of work on sex differences
  • Researchers developed more precise quantitative procedures for examining conclusions across studies and thus for determining sex differences: Meta-analysis

Maccoby and Jacklyn presented an informal
summary of research

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12
Q

How large are the sex differences?

A

Effect size (d): .20 = small, .50 = medium, .80 = large positive d means men higher, negative d means women higher

  • Even the large effect size for the average sex difference does not necessarily have implications for any one individual
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13
Q

How do minimalists describe sex differences?

A

Minimalists describe sex differences as small and inconsequential

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14
Q

How do maximalisits describe sex differneces?

A

Maximalists argue that the size of sex differences should not be trivialized—small effects can have important consequences

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15
Q

What are the sex differences in the extraversion personality trait?

A
  • Women score slightly higher on gregariousness (d = –.15)
  • Men score slightly higher on activity level (d = .09)
  • Men score moderately higher on assertiveness (d = .50)
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16
Q

What are the sex differences in the agreeablness personality trait?

A
  • Women score higher on trusting (d = –. 25), tender-minded (d = –.97)
  • Women smile more than men (d = –.60)
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17
Q

What are the sex differences in the conscientiousness personality trait?

A
  • Women score slightly higher on order (d = –.13)
  • Emotional Stability (low N)
  • Men and women are similar on impulsiveness (d = .06)
  • Women score higher on anxiety (d = –.28)
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18
Q

What are the sex differences in the openness personality trait?

A

The evidence seems to suggest that men and women do not differ on this personality characteristic… even looking across many cultures.

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19
Q

What are the sex differences in the aggressiveness personality trait?

A
  • Men commit more violent crimes of all
    sorts
  • Sex difference in violent crimes tends to correspond with puberty, peaking in adolescence and the early 20
  • Men are more physically aggressive, as
    assessed on personality tests, in fantasies, and manifest behavior (moderate to large effect sizes)
  • Profound consequences for everyday life; Men commit 90 percent of homicides
    worldwide
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20
Q

What are the sex differences in the self-esteem personality trait?

A
  • Result from meta-analyses: effect size is small, with males scoring higher (d = .21); As children age, the gap widens: 11–14, d = .23; 15–18, d = .33 (in early adolescence girls lower); In adulthood, the gap closes: 19–22, d = . 18; 23–59, d = .10
  • Result from developmental anaylsis: Young children (ages 7–10) show slight difference (d = .16)

  • Interest in casual sex, d = .81
  • Number lifetime sex partners desired, d = .87
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21
Q

What is rumination?

A

repeatedly focusing on one’s symptoms or distress; women ruminate more, which contributes to the perseverance of depressive symptoms

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22
Q

What is Spence?

A

Measure does not assess sex roles, but instead personality traits of instrumentality and expressiveness

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23
Q

What is Bem?

A

Measure assesses gender schemas and cognitive orientations that lead people to process social information on basis of sex-linked associations (cognitive orientation/domain)

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24
Q

What are the three components of gender sterotypes?

A

Three components: Cognitive, affective, behavioral

Content of gender stereotypes: Attributes we believe
men and women possess

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25
Why is it useful to study personality & culture? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 1 of 2
* To determine concepts of personality in one culture apply to others... * To determine if the structure of personality applies across cultures * To discover whether cultures differ in the levels of particular personality traits (“cultural personalities”). * To discover whether certain features of personality are universal (human nature).
26
What are the three ways that cultural infuences personality? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 1 of 2
1. Evoked culture 2. Transmitted culture 3. Cultural Universals
27
What is culture? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 1 of 2
Culture si the distinctive patterns of behavior (customs, norms, values, beliefs, etc.) that are common to a region or group of people.
28
What is cultural variation? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 1 of 2
Culture that is local within-group similarities and between-group differences in patterns of behavior of any sort. (like physical, psychological, behavioral, and values)
29
What are the three goals of cultural personality psychology? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 1 of 2
* Discover principles underlying cultural diversity. * Discover how human psychology shapes culture. * Discover how cultural understandings shape psychology.
30
What is evoked culture? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 1 of 2
Cultural differences created by differing environmental conditions activating a predictable set of responses.
31
What are the ingredients needed to explain evoked culture? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 1 of 2
* A universal underlying mechanism. * Environmental differences in the degree to which the underlying mechanism is activated or “evoked”.
32
What is transmitted culture? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 1 of 2
Representations (ideas, values, beliefs, and attitudes) that exist originally in at least one person’s mind that are transmitted to other people’s minds through their interaction with the original person.
33
According to Markus and Kitayama, what are the two fundamental "cultural tasks" that each person has? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 1 of 2
Interdependece and independence ## Footnote * Asian cultures focus more on interdependence. * Western cultures focus more on independence
34
What is self-enhancement? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 1 of 2
The tendency to describe and present oneself using positive or socially valued attributes.
35
What diffences can arise within culture variation? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 1 of 2
* Growing up in various social class. * Historical era (also known as Cohort effects) * Local evoked or transmitted culture.
36
What are cultural universials? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 1 of 2
The approach to culture and personality attempts to identify features of personality that appear to be universal, or present in most or all cultures
37
Who is Ross Chiet? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
A case of recovered memories
38
What are the fundamental asumptions of psychoanalytic theory? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
- Psychic Energy - “Freud’s Mojo” - Human mind is like a “hydraulic” system, operating by internal pressure (closed system – like a water balloon) - Personality change occurs with redirection of a person’s psychic energy
39
What are instincts? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
Strong innate forces that provide all the energy in the psychic system
40
What are the two basic instincts? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
sex and aggression ## Footnote In initial formulation, two instinct classes: Self- preservation instincts (survival) , sexual instincts (reproduction); In later formulations, Freud collapsed self- preservation and sexual instincts into one, called the life instinct (libido); added the death instinct (thanatos)
41
What is the unconscious? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
Part of the mind holding thoughts and memories about which person is unaware; includes unacceptable sexual and aggressive urges, thoughts, and feelings
42
What are the three parts of the human mind? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
1. conscious 2. preconscious 3. unconscious
43
What is the conscious? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
Contains thoughts, feelings, and images about which you are presently aware
44
What is the preconscious? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
Contains information you are not presently thinking about, but can be easily retrieved and made conscious
45
What is the unconscious? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
Largest part of the human mind
46
What is motivated unconscious? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
material can “leak” into thoughts, feelings, and behavio
47
Who is Carl Jung? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
- One of Freud’s most famous students - Collective unconscious n (precursor to evolutionary psych?) - Archetypes - Mother, Warrior, Healer, etc.
48
What are the three schools of the mind? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
1. id 2. ego 3. superego
49
What is Id? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
- Most primitive part of the mind, source of all drives and urges - Functions according to primary process thinking, thinking without logical rules of conscious thought or anchor in reality - Operates according to the pleasure principle, which is the desire for immediate gratification - Wish fulfillment: Something unavailable is conjured up and the image of it is temporarily satisfying
50
What is Ego? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
- Constrains id to reality - Develops within first two or three years of life - Operates according to reality principle - Operates according to secondary process thinking, development and devising of (REALISTIC) strategies for problem solving and obtaining satisfaction
51
What is Superego? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
- Internalizes ideals, values, and moral of society - What some refer to as the “conscience - Main tool of the superego in enforcing right and wrong is the emotion of guilt - not bound by reality
52
What is objective anxiety: ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
occurs in response to real, external threat to a person
53
What is neurotic anxiety? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
occurs when there is direct conflict between id and ego
54
What is moral anxiety? ## Footnote Chapter 17; WK 7 2 of 2
caused by conflict between ego and superego
55
What is psyachoanalysis best though of as? ## Footnote Chapter 10; WK 8 1 of 2
a theory containing ideas inspired by Freud, but modified and advanced by others
56
What are the five postulates that contemporary psychoanalysis is based on? ## Footnote Chapter 10; WK 8 1 of 2
1. Unconscious plays a large role in life, but is not the ubiquitous influence Freud held it was 2. Behavior reflects compromises in conflict between mental processes 3. Childhood plays an important role in personality development, particularly in shaping adult relationship styles 4. Mental representations of self and others guide interactions with others 5. Personality development involves not just regulating sexual and aggressive feelings, but also moving from an immature socially dependent way of relating to others to a mature independent relationship style
57
What is confirmatory bias? ## Footnote Chapter 10; WK 8 1 of 2
Tendency to look only for evidence that confirms belief, and not to look for evidence that disconfirms
58
What is constructive memory? ## Footnote Chapter 10; WK 8 1 of 2
memory influences in various ways what is recalled
59
## Footnote Chapter 10; WK 8 1 of 2
60
What did Erik Erikson emphasize? ## Footnote Chapter 10; WK 8 1 of 2
Emphasized ego as a powerful and independent part of personality
61
What are Erikson's eight stages of development? ## Footnote Chapter 10; WK 8 1 of 2
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (infancy) 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-2 yo) 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3-4 yo) 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (4-10 yo) 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (early adolescence) 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (late teens) 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (early adulthood (20s) to mid adulthood 40s-50s) 8. Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood 60-80s)
62
What was Karen Horney's fear of success? ## Footnote Chapter 10; WK 8 1 of 2
Accounts for gender difference in response to competition and achievement situations ## Footnote - Women’s gender roles encourage harmony and maintenance of relationships – that might be threatened by competition. - Men’s gender roles encourage seeking status and respect, competition and success strengthens relationship by garnering respect (from most)
63
What is narcissism? ## Footnote Chapter 10; WK 8 1 of 2
Inflated self-admiration and constant attempts to draw attention to self and keep others focused on self
64
What is the narcissistic paradox? ## Footnote Chapter 10; WK 8 1 of 2
Although the narcissist appears high in self-esteem, he or she has doubts about his or her worth as a person
65
What is the object relations theory? ## Footnote Chapter 10; WK 8 1 of 2
- Emphasizes social (not sexual or fantasized sexual) relationships and their origins in childhood - Assumptions of object relations theory - Internal wishes, desires, urges of child not as important as developing actual social relationships with significant others, especially parents - Others, particularly the mother, become internalized by the child in the form of mental objects - First social attachments that infant develops form prototypes for all future meaningful relationships
66
What are the three relationship stlyes according to hazan and Shaver (1987)? ## Footnote Chapter 10; WK 8 1 of 2
1. Secure 2. Avoidant 3. Ambivalent
67
What is self concept? ## Footnote WK 9 2 of 2
the basis for self- understanding
68
What is the beginning of social identity? ## Footnote WK 9 2 of 2
Objective self-awareness
69
What is shyness? ## Footnote WK 9 2 of 2
When Objective Self-Awareness Becomes Chronic ## Footnote - Shy people are not introverts - Shy people desire friendships and social interactions but are held back by insecurities and fears - Shy people tend to interpret social interactions negatively—they expect others to dislike them - Evaluation apprehension: Shy people are apprehensive about being evaluated by others - Shyness is also referred to as social anxiety— discomfort related to social interactions, or even to the anticipation of social interactions
70
What is self-schemata? ## Footnote WK 9 2 of 2
Specific knowledge structures, or cognitive representations, of the self-concept ## Footnote Self-schemas are built on past experiences and guide the processing of information about the self, particularly in social interaction
71
What is defensive pessimism? ## Footnote WK 9 2 of 2
Expect to fail; when failure occurs, no new negative information about the self is revealed
72
What is self-handicapping? ## Footnote WK 9 2 of 2
Person deliberately does things that increase the probability of failure—when failure occurs, they have the excuse for failure (and hence failure is not attributable to self)
73
What does social identity include? ## Footnote WK 9 2 of 2
sex, ethnicity, and height

Personality (2 decks)

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