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Biol 102: Exam > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Define a Eukaryote

A

Contains a nucleus, where the DNA is found. Plant and animal cells.

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2
Q

What are the types of microscopy?

A

Light and Electron microscopy

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3
Q

Define light microscopy, and its advantages.

A

Light micrscopy is when a beam of light is shined through a specimen. Allows you to view macromolecules (individual). ability to visualize living organisms as they move.

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4
Q

Define Electron microscopy, and its advantages

A

Electron micrscopy is when a beam of electrons is shined through a specimen. Has a higher magnification and resolution.

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5
Q

Resolution

A

the minimum distance between two points so that they can still be distinguishable

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6
Q

magnification

A

rate of objects image to real size

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7
Q

contrast

A

difference between brightness of light and dark areas

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8
Q

Plasma membrane

A

a selectively permeable, lipid bilayer surrounding each cell (how they’re bounded)

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9
Q

cytoplasm

A

where organelles are founded, suspended in the cytosol (jelly like), interior of a cell (minus the nucleus)

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10
Q

Endomembrane System

A

consists of the nucleus, ER (endoplasmic recticulum), golgi apparatus, lysososomes, vacoules, plasma membrane. series of membranes both surroinding and within the eukaroytic cell. Connected through direct physical interactions or through the transfer of vesicles.

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11
Q

Nucleus

A

contains the genetic material, as molecules called chromosomes made up of chromatin (contain DNA complexed within proteins called histones). Histones are individual proteins on the DNA strand.

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12
Q

Nuclear Envelope

A

a double membrane (two layers), each a lipid bilayer. Contains pores (embedded within nuclear envelope) for the transfer of molecules. Lined by protein filaments, lamina, for structure.

Seperates the nucleus from the cytoplasm.

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13
Q

Nucleolus

A

location of ribosomal RNA transcription and ribosome assembly (into functional ribosomes)

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14
Q

Ribosomes

A

responsinle for protein synthesis (translation), not bound by membrane so not considered an organelle technically. Free and bound ribosomes

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15
Q

Free ribosomes

A

NOT attached to ER. responsible for the synthesis of proteins bound in the cytosol.

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16
Q

Bound ribosomes

A

ATTACHED to the ER. responsible for synthesis of proteins to be inserted into membranes.

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17
Q

ER

A

Endoplasmic reticulum. Interconnected tubes and sac system to make it. The inside is called the ER lumen. Has smooth ER, rough ER

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18
Q

Smooth ER

A

NOT covered in ribosomes. Involved in metabolic processes. Involved in lipid synthesis, drug detoxification, calcium storage.

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19
Q

Rough ER

A

ARE covered in ribosomes. involved in synthesizing proteins to be exported. involved in adding carbohydrates to the proteins and membrane synthesis.

Transitional ER is a part of it that transports vesicles (small lipid bound structures containing proteins of a membrane) bud off and move to other regions of the cell (one of the regions is the golgi apparatus).

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20
Q

Golgi Apparatus

A

contains directionality.

alters the structure of macromolecules, and the syntheis of secreted polysaccharides.

Cis face: pointed towards the ER and recieved vesicles.

Trans face: sorts molecules, and releases the vesicles for transport somewhere else depending on where they are needed.

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21
Q

Lysosomes

A

interior membrane has low pH, contains enzymes (hydrolytic) for hydrolysis of macromolecules (the break down).

Included with phagocytosis and autophagy (defined later).

22
Q

Phagocytosis

A

substance from outside of the cell is brought in through endocytosis and is fused with the thing for digestion. So lysosome and food vacoule fuse togehter, and then is digested, and nutrients released.

23
Q

Autogaphy

A

digestive enzymes of lysosomes are used to degrade damaged organeles and recycle cells organic material.

24
Q

Vacuoles

A

large vesicles. The different types are:

Food vacoules: formed by phagocytosis

Contractile: pump excess water out of cell. found unicellular eukaroytes

Hydrolytic: similar to lysosomes

small vacoules: storage of small organic compounds, like toxins

25
Q

Mitochondria

A

Sites of cellular respiration (metabollic process) that produces ATP from fuels and oxygen (provides energy required for majority of cell functions). Found nearly all eukaroytic cells.

has double membrane, lipid bilayer, contains own dna and ribosomes meaning can produce its own proteins (do its own translation and transcription).

Mitochondiral matrix is the space within the centre of the mitochondrial and is convulated (folded, twisted, coiled). this shape can provide a benefit, as it allows more surface area which means more space for enzymes, meaning more ATP production.

Enzymes for cellular respiration are found to be split between the mitochondrial matrix and the inner membrane (the nice looking flattish outside part).

26
Q

Chloroplasts

A

Think opposite of mitochondria. Found only in plant cells. Sites of photosynthesis, produces sugar from carbon dioxide, water and light.

Double membrane, lipid bilayer, has its own DNA and ribosomes. Can produce its own proteins.

Thylakoids: sacs

Granum: stacks of thylakoids

Stroma: the fluid outside of the thylakoid

Enzyemes of photosynthesis split between the stroma and the thylakoids.

27
Q

What are some special properties of chloroplasts and mitochodira?

A
  • they are not static, move around depending on the activity of the cytoskeletan
  • thought to have evolved from bacteria. As this would explain all of their unique properties of being able to make own proteins, grow independently of the cell, double membrane
28
Q

Peroxisome

A

contains enzymes to remove hydrogen atoms from molecules, transferring them to oxygen, producing hydrogen peroxide, which is then converted to water.

This has a single bilayer membrane. This is important as hydrogen peroxide is toxic to humans, and is shielded from our cells by this membrane.

Involved in the breakdown of fatty acids and detoxification of harmful compounds.

29
Q

Cytoskeletan

A

Provides mechanical support and structure, provides position for organelles.
A new cytoskeleton is constantly being built and degraded.

Involved in cell movement of cell location and movement of cell parts. Within the cell we have the vesicles moving through the membrane and through it, and something always being built or taken down, so some movement always happening.

Consists of
- microtubules
-microfilaments
-intermediate filaments

30
Q

What does the flagella do?

A

Beating of the flagella moves the cell throughout its environment. Especially important in the movement of sperm cells.

31
Q

Microtubules

A

hollow rods, largest diamerer, with directionality (one end of it moves faster than the other).

Contributes to cells shape, support, compression resistance, serves as a track for motor proteins (so they can move within the cell).

Centrosome: where microtubules grow from, near nucleus

Centrioles: important role in cell division. in a centrosome.

flagella and cilia: involvement in the movement of cilia (fluid) and signalling cilia. on lung cells, cilia is the movement of mucus over the lungs.

32
Q

Microfilaments

A

smallest diameter. involved in relieving tension. contributes to cell shape and motility (muscle cell contractions)

33
Q

Intermediate Filaments

A

middle in size. more permanent than microfilaments and microtubules (as those are constantly being built and degraded). the uniqueness of some of them contribute to cell shape and consist of diverse proteins.

34
Q

Cell Wall

A

Found in plant cells, contribute to protection, shape, and water balance. Includes the pimary cell wall, and builds the secondary cell wall as it matures.

Middle Lamella: sticky layer of pectin glues adjacent cells together

  • can also be found in prokaroytic cells, but DIFFER
35
Q

ECM (extracellular matrix)

A

Almost like a cell wall but for ANIMALS.

Involved in cell signaling and communication (important)

Includes:

-glycoproteins (protein covalently bonded to the small carbohydrate chains)
-polysaccharides
-proteoglycans (protein molecules that are covalently linked to carbohydrate chains, BUT small protein molecule and many carbohydrate chains)

36
Q

Cell Junctions

A

physically attach adjacent cells to each other.

Gap Junctions: animal cells that allow the transfer of compounds between adjacent cells

Tight Junctions: tight seal between cells preventing the passage of extracellular fluid

Desmosomes: fasten cells together, anchored together by intermediate filaments. if someone has ever torn a muslce, probably ruptured their desmosomes.

37
Q

Prokaryotic Cells

A

No nucleus. DNA located in the nucleoid instead, which is not membrane bound (therefore not a nucleus, and not an organelle).

Does not contain an endomembrane system, but recently found to contain organelles. Diverse shapes and can sometimes display multicellular behaviour (3 main shapes).

38
Q

Describe Cellular Membranes

A

Selectively permeable lipid bilayers, only allows some substances to cross. Think of a border to a country needing the right passport to let you in.

A fluid mosiac, due to the many different molecules it contains (and moves around), has lots of lipids, proteins (which move around), and carbohydrates

Has hydrphobic inside, hydrophillic inside.

Membrane fluidity influenced by lipid composition. Includes the presence unsaturated hydrocarbon tails (which are kinked so prevent more packing and so lets things move around). Cholesterol in the membrane acts as cholesterol, as high temps stops it from being too fluid, and at low temps increases fluidity.

39
Q

Membrane Carbohydrates

A

Involved in cell communication and includes glycoproteins and glycolipids.

Glycoproteins: carbohydrates linked to proteins

Glycolipids: carbohydrates linked to lipids

Also important, as recognition targets several viruses. a glycolipid binds to the virus molecule. The binding allows for the infection process to occur.

40
Q

Membrane Proteins

A

Proteins differ between cells. Involved in the trasport and mediation of transport across the membrane. As well part of transduction (genetic material from cell to another)- which is considered part of cell communication.

Integral Proteins: penetrate the hyrdrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer. includes transmembrane proteins. Part of the protein is exposed on both sides of the membrane. Transmembrane proteins transport ions and molecules across the membrane.

Peripheral Proteins: loosely bound to the surface of the membrane. and more associated with integral proteins.

41
Q

Explain Diffusion

A

Movement of particles so that they spread out across the available space, and down its concentration gradient, unit a dynamic (can still move around- so dynamic) equilibrium is reached.

When higher on one side of the membrane, said to be a concentration gradient. Diffusion will occur down the concentration gradient, from side with high to low concentration.

42
Q

Explain the Electrochemical Gradient

A

The diffusion gradient of an ion influenced by both ion concentration and membrane potential (charge present across membrane).

Outside of the cell has a positive charge, while inside of the cell has a negative charge.

43
Q

Osmosis

A

The diffusion of free water across a selectively premeable membrane.

44
Q

What is Tonicity? And explain its classifications.

A

It is the ability to make a cell lose water. This contributes to turgor pressure (fluid that presses cell membrane against cell wall) in plant cells. Includes:

Isotonic: solute concentration is equal on the outside and inside of the cell. Plants would wilt, animal cells would be happy.

Hypertonic: Solute concentration higher outside of the cell than inside of the cell. Would be the movement of water from inside of the cell to OUTSIDE of the cell. Animal cells would be shriveled, and plant cells plasmayzed.

Hypotonic: Solute concentration inside of the cell higher than outside of the cell. Would cause animal cells to burst, and plant cells would be really happy.

45
Q

What are the two types of Transport?

A

Passive and active transport.

46
Q

Define Passive Transport

A

The diffusion of a molecule across a biological membrane, DOWN its electrochemical graident. Requires no additional source of energy.

47
Q

Define facilitated diffusion.

A

Type of passive transport.

Aided by highly selective transport proteins, which is very useful for bylipid layer. The two types of proteins that help with this is channel proteins and carrier proteins.

Channel proteins: a hydrophillic channel, can be gated and only active one detecting a specific signal.

Carrier Proteins: Translocates (moves) a molecule through a change in shape. Binding of the substrate to the protein on the outside of the membrane results in the protein changing shape and translocating the molecule through the membrane, then releasing the molecule and allowing it inside of the cell with its original shape.

48
Q

Define active transport

A

UP its electrochemical gradient.

The use of energy to move a compound across a cell membrane against its electrochemical gradient thorugh a carrier protein.

It is directly or indirectly powered by ATP hydrolysis (the breakdown of ATP). The terminal phosphate group goes to the protein. The addition of the phosphate group changes the proteins shape and allows it inside of the cell, where the phosphate will get removed once the molecule is inside of the cell.

Includes cotransport and bulk transport.

49
Q

Define cotransport

A

Coupling the transport of the diffusion of one molecule down its electrochemical graident with the transport of another molecule against (UP) its electrochemical gradient. Includes symport and antiport.

Symport: same orientation as the other molecule it is binding to.

Antiport: moving in the opposite direction (ex. one going up one going down)

50
Q

Bulk Transport

A

the export (exocyotsis) or import (endocytosis) or large molecules across membranes via vesicles. type of active transport. Includes phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor mediated endocytosis.

Biol 102: Exam (3 decks)

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