Unit 2 Flashcards
1
Q
Biopsychosocial processes (genetic, physiological, and psychological systems) tend to influence ______ and ______ _______ of aging.
A
health; social aspects
2
Q
Which diseases are more prevalent in later life?
A
Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, and stroke
3
Q
The cumulative effect of certain diseases (eg. arthritis or diabetes) along with the co-occurence of chronic conditions is termed ______________.
A
multimorbidity
4
Q
What can slow the processes of aging and increase longevity?
A
healthy habits concerning diet, drugs, alcohol, smoking, sex, and physical activity
5
Q
In addition to slowing the processes of aging and increasing longevity, what can developing healthy habits do?
A
contribute to independence and help a person to adapt to age-related changes over the life course (ex. loss of muscle strength, reduced endurance, and weakened immune system)
6
Q
What factors can speed up normal changes in aging/health, particularly individuals predisposed to disease states and malnutrition?
A
genetic and environmental factors
7
Q
T/F: Aging processes are the result of a combination of individual factors, choices, and external constraints.
A
true
8
Q
T/F: Aging involves degenerative changes in our physical and psychological systems that inevitably lead to frailty and dependence on others.
A
false
9
Q
T/F: Disabilities and frailties are observed at any age due to genetics, injuries, diseases, environmental factors, and living habits.
A
true
10
Q
Define disability.
A
a “reported” difficulty in performing the activities of daily life (ex. dressing, getting out of bed) OR in performing instrumental activities of daily life (ex. shopping, meal prep, maintaining a home)
11
Q
T/F: A disability is a physical or mental condition that reduces the kind or amount of activity that can be completed.
A
true
12
Q
Which age group reports more disabilities?
A
older people
13
Q
T/F: Older men, more than older women, report one disability or more.
A
false
14
Q
What does the prevalence rates of disability tell us?
A
the percentage of seniors with a disability measured at one point in time
15
Q
What factors determine whether disabilities increase dependence or lower’s someone’s perceived quality of life
A
tolerance of pain, personality and self-esteem, formal/informal social support, type of environment, and whether the individual lives alone
16
Q
T/F: Disabilities restrict functioning in later life.
A
true
17
Q
T/F: The concept of frailty is well defined and well understood.
A
false
18
Q
What is NOT an inevitable consequence of aging but rather a disease state that is susceptible to intervention and reversal in some cases?
A
frailty
19
Q
What is frailty characterized by?
A
impairments across physiological systems and often entail imbalances in these systems
20
Q
Muscle weakness, fatigue/diminished energy reserves, decreased physical/social activity, unintentional loss of weight, poor posture, and a slow/unsteady manner of walking is often a manifestation of _______.
A
frailty
21
Q
Typically, how many common characteristics of frailty is required for clinicians to label someone as frail?
A
3 or more
22
Q
Genetic traits, onset of disease, injuries that limit physical activity, poor nutrition, sedentary living, and onset of normal aging processes linked to advanced age (eg. dementia, sacropenia) are all ______ of _______.
A
causes; frailty
23
Q
T/F: Disability and disablement processes are socially constructed.
A
true
24
Q
T/F: Disability is a normative part of human existence.
A
false
25
__________ is a societal label that is experienced differently across the life course.
disability
26
T/F: Most people spend their later years in a state of dependence and thus requires drastic adaptation.
false
27
Past and present social and environmental factors, historical and unique life events, availability of a variety of resources, and willingness to use assistive devices all influence the process of __________.
adaptation
28
When does the gradual and progressive decline in structure/function of the body's various systems begin and what is the result of this decline?
early adulthood; decrease in activity level
29
T/F: In general, aging cohorts have shown a shortening of life expectancy and an increase in the onset of disability.
false; there is a lengthening of life expectancy and a reduction in the onset of disability
30
T/F: When it comes to aging processes, there are considerable differences within and between individuals.
true
31
What kinds of visible changes occur as we age?
wrinkled skin, thinner hair, changes in shape/height of the body
32
Body weight increases up to a certain age range then often declines due to a change in metabolism, what is this age range?
50-60 years
33
Why is there an increase in weight as we age?
accumulation of fat and reduction in muscle tissue
34
Research indicates that obesity is associated with a heightened risk of several _______ _________.
chronic illnesses (eg. cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, hypertension)
35
T/F: The association between obesity in later life and chronic illnesses is stronger amongst those aged 65+ and weaker among middle-aged individuals.
false; the association is stronger among middle-aged individuals and weaker amongst those aged 65+
36
What is a likely consequence for obese adults in later life?
one or more disabilities that lower their independence and quality of life
37
What are healthy adaptations to changes in body composition/shape?
exercising regularly and eating properly
38
Changes in the structure and composition of the spine lead to __________ of _______, which is a visible sign of aging.
shortening; stature
39
T/F: More women than men experience structural changes, such as shortening of stature.
true
40
What do external visible changes that come with age influence?
how a person perceives themselves and how others perceive/interact with that person
41
Do internal physical changes have more of an impact on performance of physical tasks or social perceptions, attitudes, and behaviour?
performance of physical tasks
42
Define sacropenia.
major decrease in muscle mass and loss of muscle function
43
What internal physical changes occur during the aging process?
decrease in:
- muscle mass, strength, and elasticity
- water content
- bone mass and minerals
- range, flexibility, and composition of joints
increase in:
- fat cells vs muscle cells
44
What do many internal physical changes lead to?
decreased mobility, changing leisure activities, inability to perform household tasks in later years, and increase in incidence of accidents/falls
45
What delays and/or reduces the effects of physiological age-related changes?
regular physical activity
46
Longer response/reaction time, earlier onset of fatigue, hand tremors, and a general slowing of the autonomic nervous system are all indicators of a slowing down _______ _______ ______.
central nervous system
47
Age-related changes in the muscular system result in a ________ in strength and endurance.
decrease
48
Regarding the muscular system, what does the rate and degree of loss depend on?
frequency and intensity of physical activity
49
T/F: Sarcopenia is an age-related process and a major cause of disability and morbidity among older people.
true
50
T/F: The efficiency of the muscular system cannot be enhanced in the later years by regular physical activity.
false; it can
51
Changes in which system are the most visible and most significant for behaviour?
cardiovascular system
52
What prominent changes occur in the cardiovascular system throughout the aging process?
- decrease in maximum attainable heart rate
- decrease in maximum cardiac output and stroke volume
- increase in blood pressure
53
What do cardiovascular system changes lead to?
lower the system's efficiency and hasten the onset of fatigue during physical activity
54
What is a practical implication of changes due to aging in the cardiovascular system?
limit the duration/type of work and leisure activities that older people can pursue
55
Are cardiovascular changes inevitable? If not, what can be done?
not inevitable; with regular and sufficiently intense cardiorespiratory fitness program it is possible to improve cardiovascular efficiency, lower the risk of chronic illnesses, and lower the risk of obesity
56
What is arteriosclerosis?
loss of elasticity in the arterial walls; restricts blood flow to muscles and organs thereby lowering endurance
57
What is atherosclerosis?
hardening and narrowing of the arterial walls; results in accumulation of fatty deposits that partially or completely block blood flow
58
Are cardiovascular diseases especially prevalent in men or women? Are they difficult or easy to prevent/treat?
men; difficult (because not fully understood)
59
What are the reasons for the decrease of efficiency in the respiratory system?
(1) lung elasticity decreases
(2) vital capacity decreases
(3) diffusion and absorption capacities decrease
(4) maximum voluntary ventilation and oxygen intake decreases
60
What is vital capacity?
the amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a full inspiration
61
What do aging-related changes in the respiratory system do to the body?
reduce efficiency of intake + inhibit the transportation of oxygen to organs and muscles
62
Coordination and efficiency of which two systems determine a person's physical fitness capacity?
respiratory system and cardiovascular system
63
Many studies have found a ________ relationship between amount of participation in physical activity at work/play and the level of physical and mental health.
positive
64
T/F: Physical inactivity is common across the life course, especially among older adults
true
65
T/F: Studies have found that more physically fit older people score higher on tests of cognitive functioning, thereby suggesting a link between physical activity and mental performance.
true
66
Across the age spectrum, which demographics are less likely to be physically active?
individuals who:
- are less educated
- have lower incomes
- are rural dwellers
- do manual labour
- are women
67
T/F: Negative attitudes toward physical activity is a factor in low physical activity participation and these attitudes are perpetuated by myths.
true
68
T/F: There is no evidence that physical fitness can be improved at all ages and that is enhances physical health, mental health, and competence in later life.
false
69
T/F: Physical activity is becoming less socially acceptable and desirable for adults of all ages, especially among baby boomers.
false; more
70
What is physical literacy?
the motivation, confidence, physical competence, understanding, and knowledge that individuals develop in order to maintain physical activity at an appropriate level throughout their life
71
What are the two most significant changes in motor performance with age?
loss of speed in making decisions and increase in reaction time
72
T/F: Loss of speed in decision making gets worse if the situation is stressful.
true
73
What are the implications of slowing down in making decisions/reaction time?
(1) decreases capacity for physical work
(2) increases chances of mistakes and accidents (when fast reaction is required)
(3) direct effect on social behaviour
74
Define cautiousness
a generalized tendency to respond slowly or not at all because of the possible consequences of a mistake
75
T/F: Although speed and accuracy at work decline slightly with age, experience can compensate for the onset of slowness.
true
76
A _______ of reaction time and decision-making _______ the frequency, quality, and type of interaction with others and with the environment.
slowing; reduces
77
T/F: Older people are more susceptible to falls.
true
78
Balance is controlled in the __________, which loses __% of its cells with aging.
cerebellum; 25
79
What depends largely on sensory receptors that permit information to be transmitted to and received by the brain?
the ability to interact with physical environment + with other people
80
The _______ and ________ of information processing are reduced when age-related changes occur in the major sensory receptors and processors.
quality; quantity
81
T/F: Sensory impairment can contribute to depression, loss of self-esteem, social isolation, and personal and societal health-care costs.
true
82
Changes in the visual system affect social behaviour. What are these changes?
(1) thickening of lens + decrease in diameter of pupil (limits light entering retina)
(2) less flexibility in the lens (presbyopia, which decreases ability to focus on objects are varying distances)
(3) decrease in threshold adaptation to darkness, glare, and rapidly changing light levels
(4) yellowing of the lens that filters out green, blue, and violet at the shorter wavelength end of the spectrum (resulting in loss of colour vision)
83
T/F: Vision problems may account for as much as 25% of falls among older people.
true
84
T/F: Hearing impairment is more noticeable to the individual and to others.
false; less
85
Approximately what percentage of older people have some degree of impaired hearing?
40%
86
T/F: The ability to detect or identify odours declines with age.
true
87
By about 60, individuals experience a higher taste threshold for which five taste sensations?
salt, sweet, bitter, sour, and umami
88
T/F: Sensory problems substantially increase in aging individuals around age 60.
false; they tend to be minimal until advanced ages, like 75 or 80, then they increase substantially
89
Sexuality is associated with good self-esteem and self-image, along with _______ and ____ satisfaction.
marital; life
90
T/F: A lack of interest in sex among older adults is the norm.
false
91
T/F: For women, it may take longer to become aroused, there may be less stamina, and it may take longer to reach satisfaction.
false; for both genders
92
T/F: Sexual desire and behaviour decrease as men and women age, but the decline is not as fast or low as early research suggests.
true
93
Is intimacy possible in later life?
yes
94
What can reduce/eliminate sexual desire and behaviour among older adults?
physical changes, chronic illnesses, and some prescription drugs
95
T/F: Gendered psychological/social problems, relationship need and desire imbalances, drug side effects, stigma, negative attitudes, and lack of opportunity are not likely explanations for reduced sexual activity in later life.
false; they are likely explanations
96
T/F: Older individuals do not avoid seeking help for sexual problems.
false; they avoid because of sexual stigma
97
According to empirical research, how does the meaning of sexuality shift as one ages?
importance of sexual intercourse/passion shifts to appreciation for companionship, cuddling, affection, and intimacy
98
T/F: Recent studies indicate that older individuals report being sexually inactive or willing to be inactive.
false; report that they ARE active and willing
99
What can we say about a cohort effect when it comes to sexuality?
people are healthier and have more positive attitudes towards sex + they are more honest when responding to questions about sexuality
100
T/F: The most sexually active people are those in good physical health, with high self-esteem, and who live in their own home are.
true
101
What is the dilemma faced by nursing home personnel when it comes to sexuality?
how to accommodate the sexual needs of older residents
102
According to The World Health Organization (WHO), what are the four components of good health?
(1) absence of symptoms of illness/signs of disease
(2) presence of well-being and sense of being healthy
(3) capacity to perform activities of daily living
(4) to function with some degree of independence
103
Define incidence
the rate of new cases
104
Define prevalence
current rate
105
T/F: For most older adults, the longer they live, the greater their risk of experiencing chronic diseases and physical or cognitive impairments.
true
106
What does the research community believe about the trend of health over time for the older population?
generally believe that the health of older people, on average, is improving in most industrialized societies
107
T/F: Men outlive women by 4 years.
false; women outlive men by 4 years
108
What is morbidity compression?
the tendency for the onset of disease in later life to be compressed into a shorter period at the end of life
109
T/F: Morbidity compression is uniform across countries and subpopulations.
false; may not be uniform
110
When it comes to longevity, who can be defined as "survivors"?
those who experience an age-related illness before 80 but make it to 100+
111
Who can be defined as "delayers", in terms of longevity?
those who do not experience an illness until after 80 and make it to 100+
112
In terms of longevity, who are the "escapers"?
those who reach 100 without experiencing an age-related disease
113
What are the four dimensions of health?
1) personal (adaptations to stress/pain and coping strategies)
2) social (availability of support system)
3) structural (gender, age, class, healthcare system)
4) cultural (ethnic/religious health beliefs)
114
T/F: Multimorbidity often results in increasing vulnerability and perhaps in the person being labelled as "frail".
true
115
T/F: Disability is not linked to old age and does not perpetuate negative stereotypes about aging.
false; disability is linked to old age and does perpetuate stereotypes because it's viewed as a form of dependence/frailty
116
What is functional resilience from the Lifecourse Model of Multimorbidity?
functional resilience is needed to maintain social roles and health-promoting activity levels deemed to be fundamental to aging well
117
What is social resilience according to the Lifecourse Multimorbidity Model?
harnessing available resources (friends, family, community, etc.)
118
What is psychological resilience according to the Lifecourse Multimorbidity Model?
internal activation of resources that can help individuals overcome adversity (eg. agency)
119
T/F: People tend to overestimate their subjective health status, potentially because they use other people their age as a comparison point.
true
120
What does the Health Belief Model (Rosenstock, 1974) demonstrate?
that health beliefs are the result of our social experiences over the life course and how these beliefs affect health and help-seeking behaviour
121
What is self-efficacy?
the perceived confidence that one can accomplish a behavioural change or adopt a new behaviour
122
What is necessary for making a shift in behaviour?
self-efficacy
123
T/F: Population aging is happening more quickly than in the past.
true
124
T/F: There is substantial evidence that old people today are in better health than their parents.
false; there has been little change in the prevalence of less severe limitations in functioning
125
T/F: Regardless of geographical location, the biggest killers of older people are heart disease, stroke, and chronic lung disease.
true
126
T/F: When it comes to health, there is a "typical" description of an older person.
false; biological aging is loosely associated with a person's age
127
T/F: Health outcomes in older age is random.
false; most outcomes are due to a person's physical and social environment (and its influences) throughout their life
eg. disadvantaged individuals more likely to experience poor health and less likely to access services
128
T/F: Ageism can be considered more pervasive than sexism or racism because it can take many forms, has implications for individuals and societies, and can obstruct sound policy development.
true
129
T/F: Comprehensive public health action will require fundamental shifts in how we think about aging and health.
true
130
T/F: Current health systems meet the needs of older populations.
false; systems need to be realigned to provide older person-centred and integrated care
131
T/F: The number of older people who need support for activities of daily living in developing countries is forecast to quadruple by 2050.
true, which is why all countries need an integrated system of long-term care
132
T/F: Healthy aging involves all levels and sectors of the government.
true
133
T/F: Older adults are no more susceptible to abuse and neglect by those charged with the responsibility of caring for them, than the average person.
false; they are more susceptible as they become more dependent and frail
134
What would a continuum of informal and formal care/support for older adults enable?
would enable older adults to live in their family home as long as possible, until residential care is required
135
T/F: Changing demographic and social trends mean that people are less able to look after or even help their aging relatives directly.
true
136
T/F: Only family members should contribute to ensure that an aging parent is receiving high quality care when needed.
false; family members AND salaried care workers
137
What is a major factor in achieving a balanced person-environment fit in later life?
social support
138
T/F: Today, it is more likely that older individuals are "warehoused" off to long-term care institutions.
false; less likely due to increasing support from the family and community
139
The need for social support becomes more apparent when older individuals begin to suffer from ______ ____.
memory loss
140
Who provides informal support in the home and community?
family, friends, neighbours, volunteers
141
What is the subjective component of informal care?
the quality, meaning, and satisfaction with the support that is recieved
142
What is the objective component of informal care?
the quantity of relationships, the availability of assistance when needed, and the degree to which the available support is used (amount, frequency, and intensity of interaction)
143
T/F: Daughters and daughter-in-laws tend to be the primary caregivers and elderly women (esp. widows and divorcees) tend to be the recipients of more social support than men.
true
144
T/F: Increasingly, more men are involved as primary caregivers.
true
145
What is the relationship between financial status and caregiving?
a cycle; income levels of parental caregivers decline over time
146
What is double-duty caregiving?
when a person provides care duties in a work role at the same time as caregiving for an older parent
147
What is a result of double-duty caregiving?
compassion fatigue
148
Caregiving stress involves _______, anxiety, and _____ as to whether the person is being properly cared for.
fatigue; guilt
149
Caregiving is especially stressful when an elderly person is caring for his or her ___________ impaired spouse.
cognitively
150
In 2019, what percentage of Canadians were seniors?
18%
151
Between nursing homes and hospital capacity, which one received less attention at the start of Covid-19?
nursing homes
152
Why was there an increased demand for home care during Covid-19 in addition to the existing demand?
covid-19 post-discharge care, unwilling to move to nursing homes due to many deaths, and people less inclined to go to the hospital
153
T/F: Those caring for vulnerable older adults are often themselves vulnerable.
true
154
Which group of people are 90% of the home care workforce?
women who have not completed college
155
Which individual(s) are at risk for contacting viruses in terms of providing home care?
both the older adults (caregiver could bring virus to them) and the ones providing care (exposed to multiple people)
156
Home care workers ____ access to personal protective equipment (PPE).
need
157
T/F: Home care workers and their clientele do not need regular COVID-19 testing.
false; they do need
158
What type of government funds are needed for home care workers?
federal funds
159
Home care workers are doing more complex tasks once reserved for registered nurses (RNs) and licensed practical nurses (LPNs). Considering this, what needs to be done for these workers?
they need to be trained, authorized, and compensated
160
T/F: The quality of patient lives depends on the quality of the caregiving they receive.
true
161
What do most older adults report about their mental health?
that they are in good or excellent health
162
What percent of community-living older adults are estimated to have a mental-health issue?
20%
163
The most common age-related mental health illnesses/disorders among the older population are depression, ________, anxiety, ________, and delusional disorders.
dementia; delirium
164
Do men or women tend to have higher rates of mental illness? Especially for which ones?
women; especially for depression and dementias
165
As our strength, energy, and cognitive functioning decreases, so does our ability to cope with ______.
stress
166
What is mental health?
the capacity to feel, think, and act in ways that enhance our ability to enjoy life and deal with the challenges we face + positive sense of emotional/spiritual well-being
167
What are mental illnesses?
characterized by alterations in thinking, mood, or behaviour (or combination), associated with significant distress and impaired functioning
168
T/F: There is not much older adults can do to foster good mental health in later life.
false; there is a lot they (and their caregivers) can do
169
Failure to prevent, detect early enough, or treat mental illness/problems often lead to what?
premature institutionalization
170
What is the difference between major depression and dysthymia?
dysthymia includes depressive symptoms but may be less severe and typically lasts for at least two years
171
What is delirium?
common but temporary cognitive disorder
172
T/F: Delirium is more common among hospitalized seniors.
true
173
What is dementia?
an organic brain disorder of later life
174
What does dementia impair?
memory, thinking, and behaviour
175
What is the most common form of dementia?
Alzheimer's disease
176
T/F: Early screening and diagnosis is essential for mental health problems or disorders in older adults and this happens often.
false; it is essential but early screening and diagnosis rarely happens
177
Who is most at risk for suicide?
Males 85 and older
178
As longevity increases, rates of _______ are rising, but this is not the leading cause of death among older people.
suicide
179
T/F: Gendered patterns are clear-cut and older women are in poorer health overall than men.
false; they are not clear-cut and the latter is not necessarily true
180
Key challenges to aging among LGBTQ+ persons include what?
discrimination and inequalities embedded in the social fabric of society and the health-care system
181
What happens to body fat, muscle mass, and water in the body as we age?
- more body fat
- less muscle mass and water
182
T/F: Our bodies break down alcohol more slowly as we age.
true
183
What does it mean that alcohol breaks down more slowly as we age?
it means that the alcohol stays in our bodies for longer periods and its effects last longer
184
What is considered a standard drink in Canada?
a drink that has about 13.45 grams of "pure" alcohol
185
What is the alcohol limit for women over the age of 65?
no more than 1 standard drink per day and no more than 5 per week
186
What is the alcohol limit for women over the age of 65?
no more than 1-2 per day and no more than 7 per week
187
What is recommended for both men and women when it comes to drinking?
- to reduce as you age
- to have non-drinking days
188
T/F: Alcohol withdrawal can make a person seriously ill.
true
189
What are the research implications for increasing acceptance of LGBTQ+ individuals and relationships among younger cohorts and their parents?
reporting patterns will likely be affected
190
T/F: Available research suggests that gay/lesbian adults are often estranged from/rejected by family, may have little to no support in later life, and are more likely to experience social isolation.
true
191
What do LGBTQ+ individuals, who are rejected by family, often do to compensate?
create a "surrogate" family that involves a network of gay, lesbian, and heterosexual friends
192
Among some LGBTQ+ adults, especially among ___ ___, access to medical care, home care, and community social services can be fraught with discrimination in terms of unequal access to services and lower quality of service.
gay men
193
What has been done to meet the needs for supportive housing in later life and less discriminatory treatment in medical care and social services for LGBTQ+ individuals?
social support groups have been created
194
T/F: There is generalized slowing of the cognitive processes in alter life, but there is also considerable intra-individual variability.
true
195
T/F: Research suggests that the ability to develop new neuro-connections (brain plasticity) is not apparent throughout the course of life.
false; research suggests the opposite
196
The common belief that cognitive decline is sharp and inevitable leads to what three beliefs?
1 - that older people are incapable of learning or thinking
2 - that they are forgetful
3 - that they are unable to be creative or solve problems
197
T/F: Beliefs about cognitive decline can, for some older adults, be a self-fulfilling prophecy.
true; by failing to use their available resources
198
What is the difference between intelligence and competence?
intelligence = underlying abilities that can be applied to many situations
competence = adaptive behaviour unique to a specific situation or class of situations
199
What is fluid intelligence?
learning not based on culture; ability to adjust thinking to the demands of a specific situation and to organize information to solve problems
200
How is fluid intelligence measured?
performance tests that are scored according to accuracy and speed
201
What is crystallized intelligence?
based on learning and experience; product of education, experience, and acculturation
202
How is crystallized intelligence measured?
by verbal comprehension tests that stress vocabulary and the continual addition or restructuring of information and knowing within the cognitive system
203
Developing ______ intelligence over one's lifespan leads to greater levels of ______ intelligence.
fluid; crystallized
204
What type of intelligence peaks in adolescence and is therefore susceptible to age-related decline?
fluid
205
What type of intelligence increases with age and is therefore relatively resistant to aging effects?
crystallized
206
What do older people use to offset any loss of speed in intellectual tasks?
accumulated knowledge and experience
207
Explain the chicken and egg dilemma of learning and memory.
for material to be acquired/stored in memory, it must be learned
to use the material and demonstrate that it has been learned, the person must be able to recall it from memory
208
T/F: The belief that "you can't teach an old dog new tricks" is widely held and accurate.
false; evidence suggests that older adults can learn new skills, ideas, and concepts if adequate personal and situational conditions are present
209
What non-cognitive factors influence the ability to learn at all ages?
1 - people must be willing and have the confidence to use their physical and mental capacities
2 - must have sufficient level of intelligence to acquire information and have experience in learning situations
