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General Psychology > Unit 2 > Flashcards

Unit 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Stream of consciousness

A

Term used by William James for the mind as a continuous flow of changing sensations, images, thoughts, and feelings

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2
Q

Metacognition

A

Process by which we think about thinking

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3
Q

Consciousness

A

Awareness of external events and internal sensations under a condition of arousal

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4
Q

Arousal

A

Being engaged with one’s environment

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5
Q

Theory of mind

A

Individual’s understanding that they and others think, feel, perceive, and have private experience

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6
Q

Controlled process

A

The most alert states of human consciousness during which individuals actively focus their efforts towards a goal; managed by the prefrontal cortex

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7
Q

Selective attention

A

Concentrating on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others

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8
Q

Executive function

A

Higher order complex cognitive process, including thinking, planning, and problem solving

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9
Q

Automatic process

A

States of consciousness that require little attention and do not interfere with other ongoing activities

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10
Q

Daydreaming

A

Between active consciousness and dreaming while asleep wandering thoughts, fantasy, imagination, and rumination

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11
Q

Unconscious thought

A

According to Freud, a reservoir of unacceptable wishes, feeling, and thoughts that are beyond conscious awareness

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12
Q

Sleep

A

A natural state of rest for the body and mind that involves the reversible loss of consciousness

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13
Q

Biological rhythms

A

Periodic physiological fluctuations in the body that can influence behavior

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14
Q

Circadian rhythms

A

Daily behavioral or physiological cycles that involve the sleep/wake cycle, body temperature, blood pressure, and blood sugar level

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15
Q

Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)

A

A small brain structure that uses input from the retina to synchronize it’s own rhythm with the daily cycle of light and dark

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16
Q

Electroencephalography(EEG)

A

Measures electrical activity of the brain and has helped to identify four stages of sleep

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17
Q

Stage W (wakefulness)

A

Desynchronous beta waves reflect concentration and alertness

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18
Q

State N1 (non-REM1) sleep

A

When people are just falling asleep, characterized by the theta waves, slower than alpha waves

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19
Q

Stage N2 ( non-REM2) sleep

A

Theta waves continue, interspersed with sleep spindles

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20
Q

Stage N3(non-REM3) sleep

A

Characterized by delta waves, the slowest and highest amplitude brain waves during sleep; our deepest sleep

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21
Q

Stage R (REM) sleep

A

After going through stages N1 to N3

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22
Q

REM sleep

A

Characterized by rapid eye movement when most vivid dreams occur

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23
Q

GABA receptors

A

Help regulate the process of sleep

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24
Q

Insomnia

A

Inability to sleep

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25
Q

Sleep apnea

A

Stop breathing while asleep

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26
Q

nightmare

A

a frightening dream occuring during REM sleep

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27
Q

night terror

A

a sudden arousal from sleep(N3), accompiened by an intense fear

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28
Q

REM sleep behavior disorder

A

Physically act out vivid, often unpleasant dreams

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29
Q

Narcolepsy

A

Falling asleep while doing a task and going directly into REM sleep

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30
Q

Manifest content

A

The surface content of a dream, containing dream symbols that disguise the dreams true meaning

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31
Q

Latent content

A

A dreams hidden content;it’s unconscious and true meaning

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32
Q

Cognitive theory of dreaming

A

We can understand dreaming by applying the same cognitive concepts used in studying the waking mind

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33
Q

Activation synthesis theory

A

Dreaming occurs when the cerebral cortex synthesizes neural signals from activity in the lower part of the brain

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34
Q

Hypnosis

A

An altered stated of consciousness

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35
Q

Divided consciousness view of hypnosis

A

Hilgards view that it involves a splitting of consciousness into two separate components

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36
Q

Social cognitive behavior view of hypnosis

A

The perspective that hypnosis is a normal state in which the hypnotized person behaves the way they believe that a hypnotized person should behave

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37
Q

Meditation

A

The attainment of a peaceful state of mind in which thoughts are not occupied by worry

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38
Q

Mindfulness meditation

A

A technique practiced by yoga enthusiasts and Buddhist monks

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39
Q

Lovingkindness meditation

A

Aims to develop loving acceptance of oneself and others

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40
Q

Psychoactive drugs

A

Drugs that act in the nervous system to alter consciousness, modify perception, and change moods

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41
Q

Tolerance

A

The need to take increasing amounts of a drug to get the same effect

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42
Q

Physical dependence

A

The physiological need for a drug that causes unpleasant withdrawal symptoms

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43
Q

Psychological dependence

A

The strong desire to repeat the use of a drug for emotional reasons

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44
Q

Addiction

A

A physical or psychological dependence, or both on a drug

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45
Q

Substance use disorder

A

A psychological disorder in which a persons use of psychoactive drugs affects their health, ability to work, and ability to engage in social relationships

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46
Q

Depressants

A

Slow down mental and physical activity

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47
Q

Stimulants

A

Increase the central nervous system’s activity

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48
Q

Hallucinogens

A

Modify perceptual experiences and produce visual images that are not real

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49
Q

Learning

A

A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occur through experience

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50
Q

Behavior

A

A theory of learning that focuses solely on observable behaviors

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51
Q

Associative learning

A

When an organism makes a connection, or an association, between two events

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52
Q

Observational learning

A

Leaning through observing and imitating another’s behavior

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53
Q

Classical conditioning

A

Learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an innately meaningful stimulus and acquired the capacity to elicit a similar response

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54
Q

Unconditional stimulus(US)

A

Produces a response without prior learning

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55
Q

Unconditional response(UR)

A

An unlearned reaction that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus

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56
Q

Conditioned stimulus(CS)

A

A previously neutral stimulus that eventually elicits a conditioned response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus

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57
Q

Conditioned response(CR)

A

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus

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58
Q

Acquisition

A

The initial learning of the connection between the unconditioned stimulus and the conditioned stimulus when these two stimuli are paired

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59
Q

Contiguity

A

The CS and US are presented very close together in time

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60
Q

Contingency

A

The CS also serves as a reliable indicator that the US is on its way

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61
Q

Stimulus generalization (Classical Conditioning)

A

The tendency of a new stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus to elicit a response that is similar to the conditioned response

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62
Q

Stimulus discrimination (classical conditioning)

A

The process of learning to respond to certain stimuli and not others

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63
Q

Extinction (classical conditioning)

A

The weakening of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is absent

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64
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

The process by which a conditioned response can recur after a time delay, without further conditioning

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65
Q

Counterconditioning

A

A classical conditioning procedure for changing the relationship between a conditioned stimulus and its conditioned response

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66
Q

Aversive conditioning

A

A form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of a stimulus with a very unpleasant stimulus

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67
Q

Placebo effect

A

The effect of a substance or procedure used as a control to identify the actual effects of a treatment

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68
Q

Immunosuppression

A

A decrease in the production of antibiotics to fight disease

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69
Q

Taste aversion

A

A special kind of classical conditioning involving the learned association between a particular taste and nausea

70
Q

Habituation

A

Decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations

71
Q

Operant conditioning

A

A form of associative learning in which the consequences of a behavior change the probability of the behaviors occurrence

72
Q

Law of effect

A

Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened

73
Q

Shaping

A

Rewarding successive approximations of a desired behavior

74
Q

Reinforcement

A

The process by which a reinforcer following a particular behavior increased the probability that the behavior will happen again

75
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior

76
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to increase the frequency of that behavior

77
Q

Avoidance learning

A

An organisms learning that it can altogether avoid a negative stimulus by making a particular response

78
Q

Learned helplessness

A

Experience with unavoidable aversive stimuli an organism learns that it has no control over negative outcomes

79
Q

Primary reinforcer

A

Innately satisfying one that does not take any learning on the organisms part to make it pleasurable

80
Q

Secondary reinforcer

A

Acquires it’s positive value through an organisms experience a learned or conditioned reinforcer

81
Q

Generalization (operant conditioning)

A

Performing a reinforcer behavior in a different situation

82
Q

Discrimination

A

An unjustified negative action toward a member of a group simply because the person belongs to that group

83
Q

Extinction (operant conditioning)

A

Decreases in the frequency of a behavior when the behavior is no longer reinforced

84
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

A behavior is reinforced every time it occurs

85
Q

Partial reinforcement

A

A reinforcer follows a behavior only a portion of the time

86
Q

Schedules of reinforcement

A

Specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced

87
Q

Ratio schedule

A

Relies on the number of behaviors that must be performed prior to reward

88
Q

Interval schedule

A

Based on the amount of time that must pass before a behavior is rewarded

89
Q

Fixed schedule

A

The number of behaviors or the amount of time is always the same

90
Q

Variable schedule

A

The required number of behaviors or the amount of time that must pass changes and is unpredictable from the perspective of the learner

91
Q

Punishment

A

A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur

92
Q

Positive punishment

A

The presentation of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of the behavior

93
Q

Negative punishment

A

The removal of a stimulus following a given behavior in order to decrease the frequency of that behavior

94
Q

Delay of gratification

A

Putting off the pleasure of an immediate reward to gain a larger later reward

95
Q

Applied behavior analysis

A

The use of operant conditioning principles to change human behavior

96
Q

Implicit learning

A

Unreinforced learning that is not immediately reflected in behavior

97
Q

Insight learning

A

A form of problem solving in which the organism develops a sudden insight into or understanding of a problems solution

98
Q

Preparedness

A

The species specific biological predisposition to learn in certain ways but not others

99
Q

Instinctive drift

A

The tendency of animals to revert to instinctive behavior that interferes with learning

100
Q

Learning styles

A

The idea that people differ in terms of the method of instruction that will be effective

101
Q

Fixed mindset

A

Belief that out qualities are carved in stone and cannot change

102
Q

Growth mindset

A

Belief that our qualities can change and improve through effort

103
Q

Memory

A

The retention of information or experience over time

104
Q

Encoding

A

The first step in memory the process by which information gets into memory storage

105
Q

Storage

A

The retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory

106
Q

Retrieval

A

The memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage

107
Q

Attention

A

To begin the process of memory encoding

108
Q

Selective attention

A

Focusing on a specific aspect of experience while ignoring others

109
Q

Divided attention

A

Concentrating on more than one activity at the same time

110
Q

Sustained attention

A

The ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time

111
Q

Executive attention

A

Directing attention to engage in higher level cognitive functioning

112
Q

Levels of processing

A

A continuum of memory processing from shallow to deep deeper processing produces better memory

113
Q

Shallow

A

Physical and perceptual features are analyzed

114
Q

Intermediate

A

Stimulus is recognized and labeled

115
Q

Deep

A

Semantic meaningful symbolic characteristics are used

116
Q

Elaboration

A

The formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at a given level of memory encoding

117
Q

Mental imagery

A

Visualizing material that we want to remember in ways that create a lasting portrait

118
Q

Atkinson shiffrin theory

A

Memory storage involves three separate systems

119
Q

Sensory memory

A

Time frames of a fraction of a second to several seconds

120
Q

Short term memory

A

Time frames up to 30 seconds

121
Q

Long term memory

A

Time frames up to a lifetime

122
Q

Sensory memory

A

Involves holding information from the world in its original sensory form for only an instant

123
Q

Echoic memory

A

Auditory sensory memory

124
Q

Iconic memory

A

Visual sensory memory

125
Q

Short term memory

A

Limited capacity memory system in which information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless strategies are used to retain it longer

126
Q

George miller

A

The usual limit to how much information people can keep track of without external aids is a range of 7-2 items

127
Q

Memory span

A

The number of digits an individual can report back in order after a single presentation of them

128
Q

Working memory

A

Short term memory and attention that allow individuals to hold information temporarily as they perform cognitive tasks

129
Q

Phonological loop

A

Briefly stores speech based information consists of an acoustic code and rehearsal

130
Q

Visual spatial sketch pad

A

Functions independently of the phonological loop

131
Q

Central executive

A

Integrates information from the phonological loop the visual spatial sketch pad and long term memory

132
Q

Long term memory

A

Stores huge amounts of information for a long time

133
Q

Explicit memory (declarative memory)

A

The conscious recollection of information that can be verbally communicated

134
Q

Implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)

A

Memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience

135
Q

Episodic memory

A

Information that the where when and what of life’s happening

136
Q

Semantic memory

A

Knowledge about the world

137
Q

Procedural memory

A

Memory for skills

138
Q

Priming

A

The activation of information already in storage to help remember new information better and faster

139
Q

Schema

A

A preexisting mental concept or framework that helps people to organize and interpret information

140
Q

Script

A

A schema for an event, often containing information about physical features people and typical occurrences

141
Q

Connectionism

A

The theory that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons

142
Q

Nodes

A

The interconnected locations of neural activity

143
Q

Consolidation

A

The process by which interconnected networks are formed

144
Q

Long term potentiation

A

The concept that if two neurons are activated at the same time the connection between them may be strengthened

145
Q

Retrieval

A

The memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory comes out of storage

146
Q

Serial position effect

A

The tendency to recall the items at the beginning and end of a list more readily than those in the middle

147
Q

Primacy effect

A

Better recall for items at the beginning of a list

148
Q

Recency effect

A

Better recall for items at the end

149
Q

Recall

A

A memory task in which the person must retrieve previously learned information

150
Q

Recognition

A

A memory task in which the person only has to identify learned items

151
Q

Encoding specificity principle

A

Information present at the time of encoding or learning tends to be effective as a retrieval cue

152
Q

Context dependent memory

A

The process of recalling information in the same context in which it was learned

153
Q

Autobiographical memory

A

A specific form of episodic memory, consisting of a persons recollections of their life experiences

154
Q

Reminiscence bump

A

The phenomenon whereby adults remember more events from the second and third decades of life than from other decades

155
Q

Flashbulb memory

A

The memory of emotionally significant events that people often recall with more accuracy and vivid imagery than everyday events

156
Q

Traumatic memory

A

Memories of personal trauma are emotionally arousing and are usually more accurate than memories of ordinary events

157
Q

Motivated forgetting

A

Forgetting that offsite when something is so painful or anxiety laden that remembering is intolerable

158
Q

Repression

A

Traumatized by an event that the person forgets it and then forgets the act of forgetting

159
Q

Encoding failure

A

Occurs when the information was never entered into long term memory

160
Q

Interference theory

A

People forget not just because memories are lost from storage but because other information gets in the way

161
Q

Proactive interference

A

Material that was learned earlier disrupts the recall of material that was learned later

162
Q

Retroactive interference

A

Material that was learned later disrupts the recall of material that was learned earlier

163
Q

Decay theory

A

When an individual learns something new a neurochemical memory traces forms but over time this trade disintegrates

164
Q

Tip of the tongue phenomenon

A

A type of effort full retrieval associated with feeling that we know something but cannot quite pull it out of memory

165
Q

Retrospective memory

A

Remembering information form the past

166
Q

Prospective memory

A

Remembering information about something in the future includes memory for intentions

167
Q

Time based prospective memory

A

An intention to engage in behavior after a specified amount of time

168
Q

Event based prospective memory

A

An intention to engage in the behavior when an external event or cue elicits it

169
Q

Amnesia

A

The loss of memory

170
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

A memory disorder that affects the retention of new information and events

171
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

Memory loss for a segment of the pass but not for new events

General Psychology (1 decks)

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