Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

America (BACKUP - NO REDUCTION) > Unit 1.2 - The Quest for Civil Rights > Flashcards

Unit 1.2 - The Quest for Civil Rights Flashcards

1
Q

What was life like in the South for African Americans?

A
  • African Americans faced legal restrictions at every turn.

- Booker T. Washington advocated the acceptance of segregation which was made popular by better-off Blacks and whites.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

What was the impact of the Jim Crow Laws?

A
  • Due to the abolition on slavery southerners felt they needed another way to assert authority over Blacks.
  • By 1917 the South had a large number of ‘Jim Crow’ Laws which segregated every aspect of life.
  • It was called the ‘permanent system’ or the ‘final settlement.’
  • Other states also introduced discrimination against Blacks through subtler means.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

What was voting like in the South?

A
  • Voters had to pass a literacy qualification in order to vote (More often then not Blacks were given a harder test.)
  • In many states voters had to be home owners: many blacks were not.
  • Some states held all-white elections to select the candidates for the actual election.
  • Polling stations were surrounded by whites prepared to beat up any Black voters.
  • By 1917 the number of registered Black voters had dropped. In Louisiana it fell from 130,334 in 1896 to 1342 in 1904.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Lynchings?

A
  • Some whites felt that segregation wasn’t enough and took it upon themselves to terrorise blacks into obedience.
  • Between 1915 and 1930 there were lynchings of 65 white men and 579 black men.
  • Southern Lynchings were often advertised beforehand.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What happened to Emmet Till?

A
  • In 1955, 14 year old Emmet Till was lynched.
  • Originally from the North, he was visiting relatives from the south and therefore didn’t understand the Jim Crow Laws.
  • Lynched for conversing with a white woman allegedly asking her out on a date.
  • The lynching attracted a lot of publicity and caused shock even in the South.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Who were the KKK?

A
  • White supremacist organisation revived in 1915.
  • Against any non-WASP organisation but especially Blacks.
  • Members lived all over the USA.
  • By 1925 it is estimated memberships are between 3-8 million.
  • Members were likely to posses real political and social power.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Was there government intervention in the South?

A
  • Black peoples fundamental loss of vote cost them their political power.
  • The government hindered Black equality. Plessy v Ferguson case ruled that segregation was permitted on the premises it was ‘separate but equal.’
  • ‘Separate’ was very seldom and the only way to prove ‘equality’ was to take cases to court.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

What were the opinions possessed by Woodrow Wilson and Harding towards Civil Rights?

A
  • Woodrow Wilson (Southerner) had no problem with segregation.
  • Warren G. Harding spoke out against lynching and was in favour of civil rights.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Why were the Presidential opinions of Wilson and Harding ineffective?

A
  • The republican policy of laissez-faire meant that they could express opinions to influence behaviour but wouldn’t enforce it through legislation.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

What was the impact of the Depression on the focus of the Civil Rights Movement?

A

The Federal Goverment was so concerned with solving the economic depression that civil rights slid even further out of sight.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

What was the Great Migration?

A
  • Mass movement of about 5 million Southern Blacks to the North and West between 1915-1917.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

What caused people to move away from the South?

A
  • Discrimination.
  • Jim Crow Laws.
  • KKK and Lynchings.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

What enticed people to the North?

A
  • Black people were beginning to have significant political power.
  • Black people were listened to.
  • Powerful, business-orientated Black elite grew.
  • Black people had their own tight-knit communities.
  • Employment (black workers were dislodging white workers.)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

What was the impact of the Great Migration on the South?

A
  • Labour force shrank.
  • Farming areas struggled to get by.
  • Southerners saw the migration as a way for Blacks to ‘vote with their feet’ against the Jim Crow Laws.
  • There was tendency to assume that those who stayed accepted the Jim Crow Laws.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

What was the impact of the Great Migration on the North?

A
  • Sharp rise in population.
  • Black people were beginning to rise in power.
  • Churches became significant bases for the organisation of civil rights protests.
  • Businesses put pressure on white workers to leave.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Why was there a shift in votes from Republican to Democrat by African Americans voters during the 1930s?

A
  • The Democrats promised a ‘New Deal’.

- The African American vote was a significant factor in the Roosevelt landslide election.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

What did Roosevelt and the New Deal do for African Americans in office?
(Positives.)

A
  • Appointed some Black advisors.
  • Executive Order 8802 banned racial discrimination in the defence industry.
  • Black officials in Government protested and advised. Sometimes getting results. Persuaded the National Recovery Admission (NRA) to set the minimum wage at the same rate for black and white people.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

What did Roosevelt and the New Deal do for African Americans?
(Negatives.)

A
  • Appointed some Black advisors. Was this done out of Tokenism rather than actual desire for help from the individuals.
  • Roosevelt’s need to appease the majority (many of which were against the civil rights movement) hindered the movement.
  • Often restricted the number of Black people on a work project if a donor required this.
  • Executive Order 8802 only done out of necessity?
  • Black people were constantly being moved off Projects to make room for white people.
  • Social Security provisions of New Deal didn’t accommodate Black farmers or those who worked in others homes.
  • The fact that government officials had to ‘protest’, Intensifies Tokenism and the fact that results were only sometimes effective. More often they were ignored.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Why did African Americans protest against the New Deal?

A
  • Black Americans protested about their treatment during the New Deal.
  • Found more support within communist and other left-wing groups rather than from Black rights organisations.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

What were the benefits of Black protestors finding solidarity with left-wing and communist groups?

A
  • Found more support than they did with Black rights organisations.
    NAACP rejection of framed rape case in 1931, communist lawyers took it on instead and won.
  • Communists in the North demanded that relief funds should be allocated equally between Blacks and whites.
  • Black press applauded these campaigns.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

What were the negatives of Black protestors finding solidarity with left-wing and communist groups?

A
  • The affiliation with Communism gave opposition to the Civil Rights another stick in which to beat the movement.
  • The National Negro Congress (Black civil rights group with communist members.) ended up on the governments list of suspect organisations during the Cold War years.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

What was the purpose of Church organisations?

A
  • Established to support Blacks during Depression.
  • More support in Northern cities as there were more churches and donors.
  • Father Divine of the Peace Mission church group set up shops and restaurants selling products at lower rates than white-run stores.
  • Housewives League coined the phrase “Don’t buy where you cant work” starting a campaign boycotting stores.
  • Activism within segregation.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

What was the 1935 Resettlement Act?

A
  • Aimed to resettle low-income families and lend money where needed.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

What were the limitations of the 1935 Resettlement Act?

A
  • Only helped 3,400 farmers out of the 200,000 requiring aid.
  • Things were so bad, in 1939 2 million. signed a petition asking for federal aid to help them relocate back to Africa.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

What was the impact of the Second World War on the lives of African Americans?

A
  • May 1941, A. Phillip Randolph threatened a 100,00 man strong march on Washington unless FDR banned discrimination. Was successful.
  • Despite this, equality was only patchily implemented.
  • As the war progressed the military and factories demanded more people, so Black Americans could push for equality.
  • In 1942 only 3% of defence workers were Black. Two years later 8% were Black.
  • White people began to see Black people as equals.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

What was Truman’s opinion on Civil Rights?

A
  • Truman was in support of Civil Rights.
  • Proposed anti-lynching, anti-segregation and fair employment laws in 1954 but failed to push them through to congress.
  • Truman was in favour of Black American’s holding on to the rights they gained during WW2.
  • However his Cold War focus meant his attention was given more to fighting the war rather than for Civil Rights.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Why was it difficult to push Civil Rights measures past congress?

A
  • Almost always blocked by Southern opposition and lukewarm Northern support.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

What did Truman set up in 1946?

A
  • The President’s Committee on Civil Rights.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

What was the President’s Committee on Civil Rights?

A
  • Called for equal opportunities in work and housing.

- Urged for strong federal support for Civil Rights.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

What did Truman issue in 1948?

A
  • Executive Order 9981

- Desegregated the military and all work done by businesses for the government.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

What were the various tactics used by Black American protestors during 1917-1955?

A
  • Non-violent protest.
  • Picketing.
  • Boycotting.
  • Sit-ins.
    These methods all drew public attention towards the reality of discrimination.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

What was the NAACP membership in 1917, 1919 and 1946?

A
  • In 1917 NAACP membership was: 9000.
  • In 1919 NAACP membership was: 90,000.
  • In 1946 NAACP membership was: 600,000.
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

What was the Separatist movement?

A
  • Believed Black Americans were never going to achieve complete equality with whites and therefore they should stop fighting a ‘loosing battle.’
  • Instead they should embrace segregation but fight for equal rights and conditions within it.
  • Separatism would mean Black children could grow up feeling proud rather than inferior.
  • Marcus Garvey in the early 1920s even suggested returning to Africa.
34
Q

What was the NAACP?

A
  • Established in 1910.
  • Aimed to gain Black Americans their legal rights.
  • Began by mounting their campaign against lynching.
  • NAACP took segregation cases to court but it was virtually useless due to 1896 ‘Plessy v Ferguson’ case.
  • Provided lawyers to defend black people on trial who it felt had been unjustly accused.
35
Q

What were the successes of legal challenges during 1917-1955?

A
  • NAACP won some cases during the 30s and 40s and every case in the 50s.
  • They were getting legal support.
36
Q

What were the weaknesses of legal challenges during 1917-1955?

A
  • Supreme Court didn’t enforce its rulings.
  • Supreme Court didn’t set time limits for desegregation. Instead used phrases such as “with all deliberate speed.”
  • Legal support was useless unless they were practiced properly.
37
Q

What was the 1926 Sweet Trial?

A
  • Doctor Ossian Sweet and his family move to a predominantly white neighbourhood in 1925.
  • House is surrounded by angry mobs for 2 nights running.
  • On the second night property is damaged and out of fear of an attack a shot is fired at a young white man by one of the Sweet’s friends.
  • All men within the Sweet household are put on trial for murder.
  • NAACP lawyers take up the case and win.
  • Establishes a legal defence fund to fight segregation.
38
Q

What was the 1936 Murray v Maryland case?

A
  • University of Maryland’s law school desegregated.
39
Q

What was the 1938 Gaines v Canada case?

A
  • Supreme Court order the University of Missouri to take black students.
40
Q

What was the 1946 Morgan v Virginia case?

A
  • Supreme Court overturns a state law segregating buses and trains that moved from one state to another.
41
Q

What was the 1948 Shelley v Kraemer case?

A
  • Bans regulations that bar black people from buying houses in an area in any state.
42
Q

What was the 1950 Sweatt v Painter and McLaurin V Oklahoma cases?

A
  • Desegregates graduate and professional schools in Texas and Oklahoma.
43
Q

What was the 1954 Brown V Board of Education of Topeka case?

A
  • Desegregates schools.
    First use of evidence that, as well as unequal provision, segregation is psychologically harmful to Black schoolchildren.
44
Q

Why did the NAACP and other organisations step up direct actions in the 1940s and 1950s?

A
  • Saw their membership grow.
  • Saw that legal rulings alone were not enough.
  • Influenced by Mahatma Ghandi’s peaceful protest methods.
45
Q

What type of direct action did CORE take and what was the reason for this?

A

Held a series of sit-ins in Northern cities:

  • Chicago 1942
  • St Louis 1949
  • Baltimore 1952
  • Goal was to desegregate public facilities.
46
Q

What did CORE and the Fellowship for Reconciliation do in 1947?

A
  • Went of the ‘Journey of Reconciliation’.
  • Rode inter-state busses through the South in order to desegregate them.
  • Thousands of Black people took it into their hands to be the fist to move into all-white housing blocks or business districts.
47
Q

What was the Montgomery Bus Boycott?

A
  • December 1st 1954, NAACP Member, Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white man and was arrested.
  • Boycott began on December 5th and lasted for 380 days.
  • Gained mass publicity and the Supreme Court ruled bus segregation unconstitutional on 13th November 1956.
48
Q

What was Little Rock, Arkansas?

A
  • In 1957, 9 children were selected to attend the preciously all-white Central High School.
  • On the 4th of December Faubus sent in the National Guard to prevent the children attending school for their ‘safety’.
  • MLK met with Eisenhower and urged federal intervention.
  • Federal troops were sent in to guard the children.
  • Central High School became integrated.
49
Q

What were the Greensboro Sit-ins?

A
  • February 1st 1960.
  • 4 Black college students went to Woolworth’s and waited until closing to be served at the lunch counter.
  • The movement spread across America and the first national sit-in was on February 13th.
  • By March the sit-ins had spread to 55 cities in 13 different states.
  • Lunch counters were eventually desegregated
50
Q

What was the SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee)

A
  • Set up on 15th April 1960.
  • Racially integrated organisation of young people.
  • Believe in non-violent direct action.
  • Trained in how to deal with violent reactions.
  • Sent field securities in to dangerous areas in the south.
  • Looking to see an increase in voter registration in the south.
51
Q

What were the Freedom Rides?

A
  • Organised by CORE and James Farmer.
  • Wanted to test the weight of the legislation regarding the desegregation of transport on busses.
  • Experienced no trouble in the North but as they moved deeper south they were met with violence.
  • Incident involving the KKK: set a bus alight and barricaded the doors shut in an attempt to kill the riders inside.
52
Q

What happened in Birmingham?

A
  • Most segregated city in America.
  • MLK and the SCLC planned to desegregate the whole town.
  • Plan was to get arrested and fill up all the jails.
  • Children trained in protest tactics.
  • Police used severe violence against peaceful protestors. Chief ‘Bull’ Connor used high pressure fire hoses and dogs against the protestors.
  • Shocked global media and JFK was ashamed.
  • Federal troops were sent in and Birmingham was successfully desegregated.
53
Q

What was the Freedom Summer?

A
  • SNCC pushed for voter registration. Sent 45 white and black volunteers to the South.
  • 6 volunteers found dead 39 shooting incidents and countless beatings.
  • 17,000 Black people tried to register to vote. Only 1600 accepted.
54
Q

What was Black Power?

A
  • A mixed movement from 1965.
  • Black Panthers (BP) set up in 1965 worked in black communities keeping order and organising community projects.
  • BP 10 point programme included decent housing and black history being taught at university.
  • BP uniform and carrying guns attracted government attention not the work they did for the community.
  • Most Black Power groups worked and received better results on a local level.
  • Black Power Students pressed for more black staff and black history courses.
  • Black Power Workers set up radical trade unions to push fro black jobs, equal pay and equal job opportunities.
  • Black Power radicalised many well established organisations (NAACP) in the long term.
  • If these groups didn’t radicalise then they became more pragmatic instead. Atlantic Leader of NAACP accepted slowing of segregation ing 1973 for more control over black schooling.
55
Q

What happened to interstate busses on the 25th November 1955?

A
  • Segregation on interstate busses banned all over USA.
56
Q

What did the Southern Congressmen sign on the 12th of March 1956?

A
  • 102 Southern congressmen sigh the Southern Manifesto condemning Brown v Board.
57
Q

What did James Meredith do on the 30th September 1962?

A
  • James Meredith integrated the University of Mississippi.

- Only with the help of 3000 federal troops.

58
Q

What happened on the 28th August 1963?

A
  • March on Washington.
  • Biggest civil rights protest to date.
  • Numbers involved range from 200,000-500,000.
59
Q

When was MLK awarded a Nobel Peace Prize?

A
  • 10th of December 1964.
60
Q

What was the Northern Crusade?

A
  • In the summer there were 20 major riots nationally.
  • King announced a ‘Northern Crusade’ to improve slums.
  • Set up tenant unions, improving working conditions and teaching young people about non-violent protest.
  • Campaign many focussed on Chicago.
  • Crusade petered out. King claimed success but many disagreed.
  • Brought no permanent change and it became clear it was harder to get political support for social issues than segregation.
  • King’s relationship with the media began turning sour.
61
Q

When was the Civil Rights Act passed?

A

1964

62
Q

When was the Voting rights Act passed?

A

1965

63
Q

What was the impact of Civil Rights legislation for African Americans?
(NEGATIVES)

A
  • Lots of extensions were put into place in attempt to make the laws work in practice.
  • Legal changes came after decades of struggle and protest.
  • After 1955 it became more likely that Civil Rights campaigners would be arrested, beaten up or killed.
  • Even places that were forced to desegregate didn’t make Blacks any more welcome.
  • Civil rights campaigners in the deep south could expect to have their homes, churches and workplaces fire bombed.
  • Black children and workers faced such violence and hatred that they didn’t receive a ‘normal’ experience.
64
Q

What were the achievements of Civil Rights legislation?

A
  • In 1980 there was more federal pressure to ensure equality actually happened.
  • Since 1961 there had been a series of presidential executive orders to introduce ‘affirmative action’ giving preference to black interviewee for jobs in government and business.
  • Black American middle & upper class developed modelling themselves on white society. Radicals believed this to be a sell out: they had to act like whites in to fit in.
  • Black professionals had if not equal, significant access to higher level jobs.
  • Black home ownership increased.
  • Black graduates increased.
  • Significant number of black politicians at local, state and federal level.
  • Featured more in media (cinema, books, magazines etc..)
  • In 1980 60% of Black Americans were registered to vote.
65
Q

What were the limitations of Civil Rights legislation for African Americans?

A
  • Passing of Civil Rights and Voting Rights Act made many people think that the problem had been dealt with.
  • Affirmative action and positive segregation resulted in a ‘minority quota’ mentality making black workers feel as though they were not employed on merit.
  • Death of MLK made some people turn away from Black Civil Rights to focus on other issues.
  • Poor were getting poorer and many of them fell under the poverty line in 1959.
  • Black babies were more likely to die and black children were more likely to drop out of school.
  • In 1980 75% of black high school drop-outs aged 25-34 had a criminal record.
66
Q

What were the reasons for Native Americans to fight for Civil Rights?

A
  • Tribal Homelands
  • Self-determination
  • The land issues raised by protests have still not been settled.
67
Q

What were the Key individuals/groups for the Native American Civil Rights Movement?

A
  • Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) part of American Federal Government.
  • American Indian Movement (AIM)
  • Red Power
  • National Congress of American Indians (NCAI)
68
Q

What were the Key protests of the Native American Civil Rights Movement?

A
  • 1972 AIM Trail of Broken Treaties. Protest drive to Washington to protest outside the BIA about it’s management of many issues. Including not renegotiating government treaties.
  • Feb 1973 AIM occupies village of the Wounded Knee and declares independence as the Oglala Sioux Nation. The government sends in US Marshalls and state police.
  • Feb-July 1978 the Longest Walk from Francisco to Washington to protest about forced removal of American Indians from their homelands and against unwillingness of congress to renegotiate treaties.
69
Q

What were the gains of the Native American Civil Rights Movement?

A
  • In 1971 AIM membership reached 4500.
  • 1975 Voting Rights extension included Native Americans and offered language assistance when voting.
  • In 1970 Congress returned land at Blue Lake to the Taos Pueblo Tribe.
70
Q

What were the limitations of the Native American Civil Rights Movement?

A
  • Nixon’s administration didn’t reform the BIA.
  • Nixon didn’t renegotiate about Native American Sacred Sites.
  • No overall solution to land issues.
  • Various states continued to evict Native Americans if they required the land for building or other uses such as Hawaii in 1971.
71
Q

What were the reasons for Hispanic Americans to fight for Civil Rights?

A
  • Deportation (Operation Wetback)
  • Worker’s Rights.
  • Discrimination.
  • Land.
72
Q

What were the Key individuals/groups for the Hispanic American Civil Rights Movement?

A
  • 1967 Brown Berets was a young militant organisation in East LA.
  • Ceaser Chavez was a non-violent campaigner for the rights of farm workers.
  • Jose Angel Gutierrez led the La Raza Unida party encouraging Hispanics to register to vote.
  • National Farm Workers Association (NFWA) Set up by Caeser Chavez.
73
Q

What were the Key protests of the Hispanic American Civil Rights Movement?

A
  • 1968 Chavez goes on a 25 day hunger fast; Robert Kennedy joins him for the end of the fast.
  • 1st June 1968. Over 10,000 students walk out of mainly Mexican schools in east LA protesting conditions. 13 arrested.
  • In 1973 the 1970 Farm worker contracts are not renewed. Widespread strikes, demonstrations. Thousands arrested and 2 killed.
74
Q

What were the gains of the Hispanic American Civil Rights Movement?

A
  • 1954 Supreme Court rules Hispanic people equal citizens.
  • 1975 Voting Rights Act extension provided language assistance to Hispanic groups.
  • 1968 American Legal Defence and Education set up to pursue civil rights in courts.
  • 1966 Congress’ Cuban American Adjustment Act said all Cubans who had lived in the USA for a year were permanent residents.
75
Q

What were the limitations of the Hispanic American Civil Rights Movement?

A
  • Like with the Black Civil Rights Movement changes were put into place but without a time frame and implementation varied across states.
76
Q

What were the reasons for Gay Americans to fight for Civil Rights?

A
  • ‘Lavender Scare’ ran parallel to the Red Scare to root out homosexuals. Thousands lost jobs.
  • Homosexuality was not decriminalised in the USA till 2003.
  • In the 1950s congress said homosexuality was a mental illness.
77
Q

What were the Key individuals/groups for the Gay American Civil Rights Movement?

A
  • Gay Liberation Front
  • 1974 Kathy Kozachenko became the first openly gay elected candidate to public office.
  • Gay Rights Movement formed after 1969 Stonewall Inn incident in New York.
78
Q

What were the Key protests of the Gay American Civil Rights Movement?

A
  • Gay Pride marches were held in several cities on the 28th August 1970. New York March had around 10,000 marchers.
  • Over 5000 protestors march in San Francisco against Dan White’s (Harvey Milk’s assassinator) lenient sentence. Rioting breaks out and over 120 injured.
79
Q

What were the gains of the Gay American Civil Rights Movement?

A
  • August 1980 Democratic Party says it will not discriminate against gays and campaign for their rights.
  • 1980 a gay teenage boy sues his high school for the right to bring a male date to prom. he won.
80
Q

What were the limitations of the Gay American Civil Rights Movement?

A
  • Religious Right opposed gay rights and gained support from conservatives and some republicans including Ronal Reagan.
  • 1978 Californian Law Preposition 6 bans gays, lesbians and supporters deem working in state-funded schools in California.

America (BACKUP - NO REDUCTION) (7 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions