Unit 1 Test Flashcards
Physiology
functions and activities of life or of living matter
Philosophy
Philosophy: the study of the fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, especially when considered as an academic discipline.
Empiricism
Empiricism – All knowledge arises directly from experience
Tabula Rasa
Tabula Rasa – “Blank Slate”
Evolution/Natural Selection: Charles Darwin
Some individual traits are more adaptive – promoting survival and enabling reproduction.
Nativism
Nativism: Certain kinds of knowledge and ideas are innate
(born with certain knowledge)
Empiricism
Empiricism: Knowledge comes directly from experience, learned
Mind-Body Debate
Most psychologists reject the separation of mind and body: considered one and the same.
Progression of Psychology
Structuralism -> Functionalism -> Behavioralism
Structuralism (1)
Breaking the mind down into its basic parts to determine its structure using…
Ask people to describe things and respond to prompts
Systematic Introspection
Systematic Introspection: Providing rigorous self-reports of their internal experiences
Describe personal experiences
Note. This approach was too narrow because it was limited to self-reports.
Functionalism (2)
Functionalism – understanding the function and purpose of mind and behavior, especially their adaptive value.
Observation of Behavior started
Behaviorism
Behaviorism – observable behavior rather than immediate conscious experience is the only proper subject matter of psychology
behavior modification
The measurement of behavior, especially using animals, led to principles of behavior modification.
Emphasized learned behavior, denied the existence of instinct or of inborn tendencies.
Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality and System of Therapy (psychoanalysis): both by Sigmund Frued
Focused on the unconscious
A dark view of human nature: we are governed by aggression and sexual origins
Humanism
Humanism: Focused on peoples’ capacity for self-awareness, choice, responsibility, growth.
Client-centered therapy ( Carl Rogers)
Client-centered therapy ( Carl Rogers): removes the therapist from the role of analyst or judge, people are good
Women in Psychology
Mary Whiton Calkins: first women, attended Harvard, denied Ph.D, allowed as guest grad student, completed all requirements but refused the degree, first women president of American Psychological Association
Margaret Floy Washburn: first women to get Ph.D in the field, contributions to structural and consciousness, became president of APA
Modern Psychology: Eclectic approach
Eclectic approach is favored – selecting/using information from many different sources.
Eclectic Approach: Cognitive
Cognitive – the process of knowing or perceiving; studying memory, learning, reasoning (how do we know what we know, how memory works, how we learn)
Eclectic Approach: Biological
Biological – significant advances in biology and neuroscience have led to vast knowledge of the brain and its role in behavior and mental processes.
Eclectic Approach: Evolutionary Psychology
Evolutionary Psychology- how our behaviors and thought processes have been molded by evolutionary pressures, Adaptions
Eclectic Approach: Cultural Factors
Cultural Factors– how the shared values, customs, beliefs of a group or community influence thoughts and actions
Clinical psychologists
Clinical psychologists- diagnose and treat psychological problems (deal with more serious mental problems)
Type of Clinical Psychologists: Counseling psychologists
Deal with more life transition and developmental problems people encounter
Type of Clinical Psychologists: Psychiatrists
Psychiatrists prescribe medicine
Medical doctors (MD)
Applied psychologists
Applied psychologists – use principles of psychology to solve practical, everyday real-world problems
e.g., school, educational, industrial/organizational, forensic, human factors
Research psychologists
conduct basic research to discover the principles of behavior and the mind
Scientific Method & Steps
Scientific Method: used to generate empirical knowledge (knowledge derived from systematic observations), operationalize data (numbers)
1. Develop a research question
2. Review previous research findings related to the question
3. Generate a hypothesis (tentative answer/explanation/prediction) about the behavior under study
4. Design and conduct a study; collect data
5. Analyze the data to determine if the hypothesis is supported or not
6. Report the results
The Scientific Method requires psychological terms to be defined in ways that can be observed and measured (i.e., operational definitions= numbers)
Descriptive Research
Descriptive Research: Methods used to systematically observe and describe behavior
Reactivity
Challenge to Descriptive research:
Reactivity: when behavior changes because of the observation process. Reactivity reduces the external validity of the study
External Validity
External validity: the extent to which results generalize to other situations or are representative of real life
Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic Observation: Observe in natural settings (not in a lab)
Researcher’s role is unknown to the participants
Observe indirect effects of behavior
Case Studies
Focus on a single individual (or a very small number)
Reduced external validity due to small number of participants
Self-report: difficulty verifying accuracy of the information from the subject
Self Report
Self-report: difficulty verifying accuracy of the information from the subject
e.g., inaccurate memory, dishonesty, trying to please the experimenter.
Sampling
Consider the larger group we are trying to make a statement about
Select some people from population as a basis for one’s study
Helpful as sometimes the population is too large and can’t study the whole population
Random Sample
Want sample to be representative of population: random sample
Every member of the population has a equal chance of being selected
Surveys
Sample behavior broadly, usually many subjects
Questionnaires about behaviors/characteristics, Opinion polls
Limitations: response rates often low, sample not representative of whole population, self report
Psychological Tests
Used to place people in classes or to make decisions in courts of the laws or employment: provide describe details
Achievement tests: current level of knowledge or competence in a particular subject
Aptitude tests: potential for success in a particular profession or area of knowledge
Intelligence tests: classify ability, identify those with different educational needs.
Personality tests: identify characteristics or traits, tendencies to act in consistent ways, diagnose psychological disorders and evaluate treatment
Descriptive Statistics
Describe/depict large amounts of data in abbreviated, symbolic, visual forms
Ex: IQ scores, GPA, weather information, sports information, miles per gallon, salaries
Descriptive Statistic: Mean
Mean: Arithmetic average – not necessarily one of the scores
Outliers can pull mean up or down
Descriptive Statistic: Median
Median: Middle point in a set of scores – not necessarily one of the scores
Descriptive Statistic: Mode
Mode: Most frequently occurring score – must be one of the scores
Measures of Variability
Measures of Variability: how much the scores in a distribution differ from one another (how scattered or tightly packed the data set is around the mean)
- range and standard deviation
Range
Range: The difference between the highest and lowest observed values.
Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation: Reflects the average variation of individual scores from the mean.
Correlation Research
Correlational Research: discover relationships between variables to make predictions about future performance
Correlation
Correlation: A relationship between two (or more) measures of behavior.
CANNOT CONCLUDE CAUSATION FROM CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH, ONLY SEE RELATIONSHIPS
Correlation coefficient
Correlation coefficient: a numerical expression (calculated by a formula) of the strength and direction of a relationship.
RANGE: -1.00 to +1.00, Cannot fall outside -1 to +1
The stronger the correlation (positive or negative), the more accurate a prediction can be made about others.
Experimental Research
Experimental Research: The only type of research that can test hypotheses to establish cause and effect relationships, if well-conducted.
Most possible experimenter control: choose IV and DV
Independent variable: variable you change
Dependent variable: effect of the independent variable
Confounding Variables
Confounding Variables: other factors that affect the outcome (scores on the DV)
Internal Validity
Internal Validity: the extent to which the measured results on the DV can be attributed to the IV and not to any confounding variables
-Results with higher internal validity: results come from just manipulating the IV
Experimental Control Method: single blind study
Single blind studies: participants are unaware of what treatment condition group they are in
Experimental Control Method: Double Blind Study
Double blind studies: neither the participants nor the observers (research assistants) know which group subjects are in
Inferential Statistics
Inferential Statistics: statistical methods used to make inferences (i.e., conclusions based on evidence and reasoning) about a population based on data taken from a sample of that population.
-To determine how likely the sample results accurately reflect the population as opposed to having occurred by chance.
Research Ethics
Research should be conducted with respect and concern for the dignity and welfare of the participants
Follow appropriate laws, regulations, professional standards
-respect for persons, justice (those who bear the risks of participating should receive its benefits), beneficence (potential benefits justify the risks of harm)
Review Boards
Primary purpose: ensure ethical principles are followed, especially to protect subjects from harm
Anonymity
Anonymity: no identifying information, can be in study but don’t know name (subject 1), researchers don’t know who subjects are
-greater degree of protection
Confidentiality
Confidentiality: researchers know who the participants are but remove identifying information from your research report.
Debriefing
Researchers tell subjects after they have been studied that the researchers were looking at
Given honest explanation at end of the study if there was deception
Deception
Deception (allowed in certain situations, participants must be debriefed)
Ex: administering placebo, avoid reactivity (people changing when being watched)
Informed Consent
Process by which researchers working with human participants describe their research project and obtain the subjects’ consent to participate in the research based on the subjects’ understanding of the project’s methods and goals.
Measure of Central Tendency
The value around which scores in a data set, or distribution, tend to cluster
As psychology emerged as a discipline, the focus of psychological research shifted from
structuralism to functionalism to behaviorism
The interaction of nature (genetics) and nurture (environment/experience) is adaptive; it helps promote survival and the ability to reproduce.
True
People’s behavior sometimes changes simply because they know they are being observed. This effect is known as ______________ which likely _____________ the external validity of a study.
reactivity; reduces
4 Primary Brain Functions
- Communicating internally (Neuron based)
- Initiating and coordinating behavior (the nervous system and the brain)
- Regulating growth and internal functions
- Adapting and transmitting the genetic code
Reflex pathways require no input from the brain, and if the spinal cord is severed, blocking communication between most of the body and the brain, reflexive responses can still occur
True
True of False: neurplasticity is the brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections until about age 25
False
Action Potential
an electrical signal that travels along the axon of a neuron
True of false: Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection was based on his knowledge of DNA
False
Drugs that block the action of specific neurotransmitters
Antagonists
Gymnasts coordinated movements are primarily the result of activity in the:
Cerebellum
The flow of information within a neuron is from:
dendrites to soma to axon to terminal buttons
The endocrine system provides for the body’s long term communication needs by releasing:
hormones into the bloodstream
Suffering a stroke: insensitive to pains from right hand. In the cerebral cortex, stroke is most likely affected her:
left parietal lobe
Parietal lobe: sensory information processing, temperature, touch, pain, pressure
Primary Brain Function: Communicating Internally
Information from the environment translated into Language of the nervous system relayed to the Appropriate processing sites throughout the body
Neurons
Neurons: Individual cells that receive, integrate and transmit information within the nervous system
The main components of the nervous system.
Communication by neurons is electrochemical—electrical within, chemical between
Neurons receives information from a lot of sources and makes decisions on whether to pass on information or keep it.
Information receives on one end of neuron and transformed along axon to other end of neuron: information movement within cell is electrical and information movement between neurons is chemical
Communication by Neurons: electrical or chemical
information movement within cell is electrical and information movement between neurons is chemical
3 Main Types of Neurons
Sensory neurons, Interneurons, Motor neurons
Sensory Neurons
Sensory Neurons: Carry information from the environment toward the spinal column and brain
-take information from eyes to be processed in the brain
Interneurons
Interneurons: Transfer information from one neuron to another; no direct contact with the outer world
-relay information
Motor Neurons
Motor Neurons: Carry messages and commands away from the brain and spinal column to the muscles and glands that produce responses
Anatomy of Neurons
Dendrites -> nucleus and soma (cell body) -> axon hillock -> Axon (has myelin sheath) -> axon terminal buttons
Neuron Anatomy: Dendrites
Information received by dendrites, passed on by axon terminals
Dendrites are more spread of like branches of a tree: countless dendrites
-Reception points to receive information
-receive info from other neurons
Axon Hillock
2 types of information: to keep sending or stop sending
Where tallying of signals takes place: if is approved to send information then information/impulse is sent along the axon where it reaches the end of the axon terminal
Axon Terminal
Neurotransmitters (chemicals) released into synapse
At this point we see chemical stored and process continues
Information received from axon
Action Potential
Action Potential –An all-or-nothing electrical signal that travels down the neuron’s axon, e.g., Pass/Fail, On/Of (electrical activity within neutron: no dimmining either send or not send) happens constantly in our brain
-sun of received messages in the neuron’s cell body
Excitatory Action Potential
If the sum of these received messages in the neuron’s cell body is Excitatory: the neuron fires its own signal for transmission to the next neuron
Inhibitory Action Potential
Inhibitory: no message is transmitted
Steps: information through neurons
Information comes in through dendrites
If determined excitatory in axon hillock, signal is sent along axon
Signal comes along to ends of axon terminal, which contain chemicals called neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters stored in tips of axon terminal: if electrical signal comes along is released
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters stored in tips of axon terminal: if electrical signal comes along is released
-chemicals released by axon terminal into synapse
Axon
If determined in the axon hillock, an action potential (electrical signal) travels along the axon
Synapse
The gap between the axon terminal button and dendrite.
-gap between one neuron and the next
-If a sufficient electrical signal is generated within the neuron, an action potential is generated and an electrical charge travels along the axon and releases chemicals (neurotransmitters) into the synapse. (chemicals either received or go back in gap)
-less than 40 nm wide
Main Neurotransmitter: Glutamate
Glutamate: helps with many mental processes, including memory; the most common neurotransmitter in the brain
Excitatory transmitter
Main Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine: involved in muscle contraction to produce movement; possible role in Alzheimer’s disease
Excitatory transmitter
Main Neurotransmitter: Dopamine
Dopamine: involved in schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease
Pleasure related neurotransmitter
Excitatory transmitter
-Substantia nigra: active in the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter related to movement and coordination, learning, drug addiction, and emotion.
Main Neurotransmitter: Serotonin
Serotonin: involved in sleep and dreaming, depression, schizophrenia, OCD
In antidepressants
Excitatory transmitter
Main Neurotransmitter: Gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA)
Gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA): involved in regulating anxiety
Inhibitory neurotransmitter: slows things down, reduce anxiety
Agonists
Agonists: Drugs that increase or mimic the action of naturally occurring neurotransmitters
Antagonists
Antagonists: Drugs that block the action of a neurotransmitter
-block receptors
Reflex
An automatic reaction processed (mostly) in the spinal cord, not the brain
Allows a quick, simple, direct response to an environmental event
-Requires no input from the brain; sensory neurons to interneurons in the spinal cord to motor neurons
-Adaptive function
Neuroplasticity
Allows neurons in the brain to compensate for injury and disease and to adjust their activities in response to new situations or changes in their environment.
-How neurons adapt and change
-The brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life.
HAPPENS THROUGHOUT OUR LIFESPAN
Primary Brain Function: Initiating and coordinating behavior
The nervous system and the brain
Neuroscience
Neuroscience: the study of the connection between the brain and behavior
2 Parts of Human Nervous System
Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System
Central Nervous System
Brain and spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System
Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord
Includes:
Somatic (nerves that transmit sensory info to the brain)
Autonomic (regulates life sustaining activities) -> Sympathetic nervous system and Parasympathetic nervous system
Somatic Nervous System
Part of Peripheral Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System: nerves that transmit sensory info to the brain
Sensory nerves: information in and nerves that connect information on the way out (sensory in, motor out)
-Nerves that connect skeletal muscles to initiate movement
Autonomic Nervous System
Part of Peripheral Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System: regulates life sustaining activities (heart rate, digestion, blood pressure, activities of internal glands)
-Autonomic Nervous System is divided into the Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Nervous System
Sympathetic Nervous System
Part of Autonomic Nervous System
-Arousing
-Initiates “fight or flight” responses in an emergency
-Chemicals released increase heart rate, blood pressure, breathing rate, (and other changes) to respond to the threat, either by fighting or fleeing (or freezing).
Parasympathetic Nervous System
Part of Autonomic Nervous System
-Calming, restores body functions to normal levels
-Helps replenish stored energy levels after the emergency has passed
-Bring back to homeostasis: threat is over
3 Main Techniques to study the brain
1: Study individuals with brain damage
2: Activate the brain by either chemicals or wire electrodes (primarily with animals) and observe the outcome.
3: Monitor the brain through technology: main one used today
-Electroencephalogram (EEG), CT scan, PET scan (radioactive), MRI (most useful and desirable)
3 Major Regions of the Brain
Hindbrain
Midbrain
Forebrain
Hindbrain
Most primitive (oldest) part of the brain, sits just above the top of the spinal cord
-Contains the cerebellum
-Basic life support; the oldest part in evolutionary terms.
-Damage here, including the effects of drugs, can be lethal.
-Regulate heart rate, breathing, blood pressure; certain reflexes (e.g., vomiting, sneezing, coughing); general arousal, sleep, and consciousness
-Acts as pathways for neural signals traveling between the brain and spinal cord
Cerebellum
In the Hindbrain
Cerebellum (“little brain”) is involved in complex movements, fine motor skills as well as motor memory.
-small movements and coordination
Midbrain
Sits on top of the hindbrain
-Smaller portion: like a relay station where information comes in and out
-Relay station for visual and auditory signals; coordinates movement in response to sensory events.
-Receives information from many sources
-Includes Substantia nigra: active in the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter related to movement and coordination, learning, drug addiction, and emotion.
Substantia Nigra
Substantia nigra: active in the release of dopamine, a neurotransmitter related to movement and coordination, learning, drug addiction, and emotion.
-Problematic when too much dopamine is released
-The degeneration of the substantia nigra and the resultant decreased levels of dopamine in the brain are thought to be the cause of Parkinson’s Disease.
Forebrain
Outer portion of the brain: included everything that sits above the midbrain
-Species with larger forebrains are more advanced than specie with smaller forebrains
-Include thalamus and hypothalamus
-Limbic system -> amygdala, hippocampus
-Cerebral Cortex
Thalamus
Part of the Forebrain
Thalamus: just above the midbrain; main processing point for sensory information being sent to the cerebral cortex.
Hypothalamus
Just below the thalamus; regulates eating, drinking, body temperature, sexual behavior and the release of hormones from the pituitary gland.
-Regulates pituitary gland
-Important in regulation
Limbic System
Limbic system: several structures, including: amygdala and hippocampus
Amygdala
Part of Limbic System
Amygdala: motivational and emotional behaviors (e.g., fear, aggression, defensive actions) and the ability to recognize emotions in others.
Hippocampus
Part of Limbic System
Hippocampus: active in the formation of memories, esp. for specific personal events
-Memory
Cerebral Cortex
Cerebral cortex: 80% of the human brain’s volume, the seat of our higher mental processes.
-Outermost layer of the brain
Corpus Callosum
Corpus callosum: Connects the two hemispheres
-Bundled nerve fibers
-Strip through middle of brain dividing hemispheres
-There are 2 frontal lobes: one on left and one on the right, 2 parietal lobes, 2 temporal lobes, 2 occipital lobes
-4 lobes in each hemisphere: 8 all together
Brain Hemispheres and Lobes
Each hemisphere is divided into four lobes, each of which has a major role in certain functions:
-Frontal Lobes
-Parietal Lobes
-Temporal Lobes
-Occipital Lobes
Frontal Lobes: 2 sides
Executive / higher order functions: frontal lobe is part of forebrain which separates human from other animals, where analytic skills and thinking happens
-planning and organizing, decision making, problem solving, memories
-Contains the motor cortex
Motor Cortex
Part of frontal lobe that controls voluntary muscle movements, including those involved in language production
-Broca’s Area is in the left hemisphere near motor cortex: in left frontal lobe near motor cortex, only on left hemisphere, responsible for speech production, which is why it is close to motor cortex because need to use motion to control speech
-Right side of motor cortex control movement of left side of motor cortex
-Movement
Broca’s area
Area in the left hemisphere of the frontal lobe near the motor cortex
-Speech production
Mirror Neurons
Mirror neurons: involved in empathy and ability to take the perspectives of others
-neurons that help us empathize with others
Parietal Lobes
Contains the Somatosensory cortex: main sensory area, receiving and producing sensory activity, front of parietal lobe near motor cortex
-Involved in the processing of sensory information related to temperature and touch, including pressure and pain
-Senses
-Somatosensory cortex experiences senses: opposite side of brain processes it
Temporal Lobes
Near the temple
Involved in processing auditory information received by the ears (register sound)
Left temporal lobe includes Wernicke’s area, where spoken language comprehension occurs
Wernicke’s Area
Area ONLY in the left temporal lobes where spoken language comprehension occurs
-As someone talks Werrnicke’s area comprehends speech
Occipital Lobes
Back part of brain
Visual processing: receiving info from receptor cells in the eyes, integrating color, motion, form.
Hemispheric processing: images originating in the right visual field are processed in the left hemisphere’s occipital lobe and vice-versa.
Split Brains
If corpus callosum does not exist or has been damaged or surgically cut, the two hemispheres cannot communicate with each other.
-But, since many brain functions are regulated in more than one part of the brain, most split-brain individuals can function effectively in normal conditions.
-Many people can still function without corpus callosum, because many function are regulated in the brain
Left Hemisphere
Left Hemisphere: verbal tasks (Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area are in the left hemisphere= speech production and comprehension)
-problem solving, explanations
-Verbal tasks: reading, writing
Right Hemisphere
Spatial tasks: orienting ourself in spacial situations
Some emotional processing
Primary Brain Function: Regulating Growth and Internal Functions
The Nervous System and Endocrine System
The Nervous System
The nervous system: starts / controls most behaviors
-immediate, right now system
-uses neurons
The Endocrine System
The endocrine system: initiates / controls growth, provides long-term regulation of internal biological systems (hormones and glands)
-Uses hormones, not neurons, released from various glands into the bloodstream as its way to communicate.
-Slower, but with more widespread and lasting effects
-Long Term system
-Uses hormones: uses glands and released into the bloodstream, tells certain organs to do things
Pituitary Gland
Pituitary gland: directs the rest of the glands
-The hypothalamus in the brain controls the pituitary gland (the “master gland”) which regulates the activity of other glands.
-Released hormones can affect the firing rates of neurons
Primary Brain Function: Adapting and Transmitting the Genetic Code
Natural Selection and Adaption
Theory of Natural Selection: Charles Darwin
How species change or evolve over time
Adaptation
A trait selected for by nature because it increases the chances of an organism to survive and multiply.
-Must be able to be inherited, passed down through generations
-Must have been present in some members of the species but not others.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes: long threads of DNA.
-23 pairs of chromosomes in every cell of our body = total 46 chromosomes
-23 from the mother’s egg, 23 from the father’s sperm in every cell.
Genes
Genes: segments of a chromosome that carry information to influence or create hereditary characteristics (e.g., physical attributes or limitations, susceptibility to various diseases).
Genotype
Genetic information inherited from parents
-Genes: specific genetic makeup each person has
-Nature: genetic makeup from egg and cells
Phenotype
Observable characteristics (height, body shape, hair color)
-Physical characteristics
-Many characteristics can be strongly influenced by the environment (e.g., diet, physical health)
Mutations
Mutations: spontaneous changes in the genetic material
-Can be harmful, but at times lead to a survival advantage.
Family Studies
Family studies: can help determine the influence of heredity, but results can be confounded by the role the environment plays within a given family
Twin Studies
Twin studies: help illustrate the effects of heredity vs. environment. (most helpful study)
Human Development
Human Development: the age related, physical intellectual, social, and personal changes that occur throughout life
Prenatal
Before Birth
-Germinal Period
-Embryonic Period
-Fetal Period
Germinal Period
Germinal Period (~2 weeks): from conception to implantation of the zygote in the wall of the uterus
-Fewer than half successfully implant
Embryonic Period
Embryonic Period (~6 weeks): week 3 to week 8
-Physical characteristics begin developing
-Sexual differentiation begins
Fetal Period
Fetal Period (~38 weeks): from week 9 to birth
-Further development of bones, muscles, organs,
Complexity of brain tissue
-Forebrain becomes bigger portion of the brain
Prenatal Risk Factors
Prenatal Risk Factors: Risk factors during pregnancy can result in physical impairments, deformities, illnesses, premature birth, low birth weight, intellectual disabilities, developmental delays, psychological disorders
Teratogens
Teratogens: environmental agents that can potentially damage the embryo (most vulnerable period) or fetus.
-Viruses
-Harmful effects of alcohol
-Drugs
-Environmental toxins
Infancy
Infancy: First 1-2 years of age
-Rapid growth in body size (including brain)
-Neural circuits increase; more dendrites, synapses. (some pruning of unused neurons)
-Brain development leads to physical changes (e.g., rolling over, sitting, crawling, standing, walking).
Toddlers
Growth, including that of brain cells, continues; less rapidly than prenatally and during infancy.
-coordination improves
-Interactions increase: express wants more verbally, more movement
Adolescence
Rapid physical growth, onset of puberty (sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce).
-Increased estrogen and androgens (testosterone)
-Environmental factors can accelerate or delay the maturation process.
-The brain reaches adult weight by about age 16.
-Continuing myelination of neurons (increasing motor development) and pruning occur, likely altering internal communication networks, improving higher level cognitive and social abilities.
Adulthood
Physical maturity reached in the 20’s
Physical maturity eventually begins to decline
Older Adults
Aging of the brain can result in dementia, physically based loss in mental functioning, one type of which is Alzheimer’s disease.
-Continued mental activity may promote neural growth: Neuroplasticity
Research Methods to Study Development
Longitudinal Designs and Cross-Sectional Designs
Longitudinal Designs
Longitudinal Designs: long term study of same group, gather information repeatedly from same group over intervals
-same person or group
-studied over different points in time (at ages 2, 10, 18)
-Cons: Costly, lengthy process, participant loss over time
Cross Sectional Designs
Cross-Sectional Designs: look at people of different ages at the same time
-faster and more practical
-Cons: confounding variables more likely
Jean Piaget
Swiss psychologist, examined development of children’s thought processes
-Believed infants are born with a natural tendency to organize the world meaningfully.
-Nativism: nature approach
-Infants construct schemata: mental models of the world to guide and help interpret experiences
-Initially inaccurate, schemata become more accurate throughout childhood via experience, including: assimilation and accommodation
Schemata
Infants construct schemata: mental models of the world to guide and help interpret experiences
-Initially schemata are not very accurate, but they becomes more accurate as we take in more information
Assimilation
Assimilation: fitting a new experience into existing schemata
Accommodation
Accommodation: changing existing schemata to allow for new experiences, information
-change what you view or know about a topic
-broaden view
Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Stage Theory: fluid movement in life between stages
1. Sensorimotor stage (birth to 2 years)
2. Pre-operational Period (2 to 7 years)
3. Concrete Operational Period (7 to 11 years)
4. Formal Operational (11+ years)
Sensorimotor Stage
1- Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years
-Schemata revolve around babies’ sensory and motor abilities, survival reflexes.
-Slowly add more voluntary movement, vocalization
-Babies lack object permanence: they fail to realize that objects still exist when out of sight
Preoperational Period
2- Preoperational Period: 2 to 7 years
-Schemata become more sophisticated; symbolic thought increases
-Difficulty understanding conservation (i.e., certain physical properties of an object remain the same despite superficial changes in its appearance)
-Egocentrism: viewing the world from one’s own perspective only
Concrete Operational Period
3- Concrete Operational Period: 7 to 11 years
-Can now verbalize, visualize, and mentally manipulate objects
-Can understand reversibility and conservation
-Perform elementary logical tasks, but thinking remains concrete (thinking tied to actual objects)
-Difficulty with true abstract thinking
Formal Operational Period
4- Formal Operational Period: 11+ years (roughly)
-Onset approximately at adolescence, occurs gradually over a period of years. May not be achieved by all.
Can consider:
-Imaginary concepts
-Hypothesize
-Think in the abstract
Systematic ways of solving problems
Thinking is adultlike
Cons of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
-Cognitive development is a process of continuous change and adaptation (not discrete stages)
-Ignored the role of culture in development
Lev Vygotsky
Russian psychologist
Cognitive abilities emerge directly out of each person’s attempts to master social interactions and cannot be understood by considering the individual alone.
-context people grew up in
Morality
Morality: Ability to tell appropriate from inappropriate actions (or, right from wrong)
Lawrence Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg (American psychologist): Modeled a series of moral development stages after Piaget’s ideas, using children, adolescents and adults.
-Tested individuals moral development by posing moral dilemmas
-Research based soley on males
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development: Stage Theory of Moral Development
Three Main Levels (full theory has 6 levels) in sequence:
1. Preconventional: Based on consequences (punishment or rewards) to the individual
2. Conventional: based on rules, social order (based on set of principles, rules, or laws), get teachings from religion, faith, and moral codes
3. Postconventional: based on abstract principles, where would we be without the rule of law (need laws to keep order)
Carol Gilligan
Carol Gilligan: American psychologist: considered Kohlberg’s theory more applicable to males (morality based on justice) than women (morality based on caring)
-In a Different Voice, 1982
Social and Personal Development
Social and Personal Development: Our relationship with others across the lifespan; our identity formation
Attachment in Infancy
Attachments: Strong emotional ties formed to one or more intimate companions.
-Critical to survival.
Mary Ainsworth
Mary Ainsworth’s 4 Attachment Types: attachment styles in children
Secure Attachment
Secure: Upset when caregiver leaves, happy when he or she returns
-Ideal attachment
-Secure types-associated with higher quality friendships and romantic relationships in adolescence
Resistant Attachment
Resistant: Upset when caregiver leaves, upset when caregiver returns
Avoidant Attachment
Avoidant: Not upset when caregiver leaves, little reaction upon return
-Not distressed when mother leaves and shows no reaction when mother returns
Disorganized Attachment
Inconsistent
Temperament
Temperament: General level of emotional reactivity
-Tends to be stable across the life span
Temperament types:
-Easy
-Difficult
-Slow to warm up
Personal Identity
Personal Identity: A sense of who one is as an individual and how one measures up against peers –> Influenced heavily by interactions with parents and later with peers.
Erik Erikson’s Crises of Development
Personal identity development is shaped by 8 psychosocial crises
-5 in childhood (adolescence: identity vs role confusion)
-3 in adulthood (young adulthood: intimacy vs isolation)
Gender Identity
Gender identity: sense of self as male or female (see non-binary below) begins to develop by 2 or 3
-starts before birth
Gender Roles
Gender roles: patterns of behavior consistent with society’s dictates
Social Learning View
Social learning view: While hormones released early in development may account for some differences, gender role development is mainly learned from environment
Ageism
Ageism: Discrimination or prejudice against a person based on age
-Common stereotypes involving the elderly: most are sick, in mental decline, lonely, depressed
-Some positive stereotypes are held: kinder, wiser, more dependable, have more personal freedom
Death & Dying- Kubler-Ross’ Stage Theory
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross: typical sequence of reactions to a terminal diagnosis: began medical communities focus on talking about death rather than avoiding it, important part of people’s life is how they approach death
-Denial
-Anger
-Bargaining
-Depression
-Acceptance
Dying trajectory
Dying trajectory: the psychological path a person follows when facing impending death.
-People do not go through stages: each individual has their own unique approach to learning about their own death
-End of life decisions- autonomy, quality of life, afterlife
