Unit 1 Terms: Scientific Foundations of Psychology

Question 1

critical thinking

Answer 1

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Question 2

empiricism

Answer 2

the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge.

Question 3

structuralism

Answer 3

an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.

Question 4

introspection

Answer 4

the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological processes.

Question 5

functionalism

Answer 5

an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function— how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Question 6

behaviorism

Answer 6

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Question 7

Freudian (psychoanalytic) psychology

Answer 7

which emphasized the ways our unconscious mind and childhood experiences affect our behavior.

Question 8

humanistic psychology

Answer 8

a historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential.

Question 9

psychology

Answer 9

the science of behavior and mental processes.

Question 10

nature-nurture issue

Answer 10

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

Question 11

natural selection

Answer 11

the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Question 12

culture

Answer 12

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Question 13

biopsychosocial approach

Answer 13

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints.

Question 14

testing effect

Answer 14

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

Question 15

SQ3R

Answer 15

a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review.

Question 16

basic research

Answer 16

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

Question 17

applied research

Answer 17

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

Question 18

hindsight bias

Answer 18

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

Question 19

theory

Answer 19

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Question 20

hypothesis

Answer 20

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Question 21

operational definition

Answer 21

a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Question 22

replication

Answer 22

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Question 23

case study

Answer 23

a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Question 24

naturalistic observation

Answer 24

a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.

Question 25

survey

Answer 25

a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Question 26

sampling bias

Answer 26

a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Question 27

population

Answer 27

all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.

Question 28

random sample

Answer 28

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Question 29

correlation

Answer 29

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Question 30

correlation coefficient

Answer 30

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from − 1.00 to + 1.00).

Question 31

variable

Answer 31

anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.

Question 32

scatterplot

Answer 32

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Question 33

illusory correlation

Answer 33

perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.

Question 34

regression toward the mean

Answer 34

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) toward the average.

Question 35

experiment

Answer 35

a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

Question 36

experiment group

Answer 36

in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.

Question 37

control group

Answer 37

in an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.

Question 38

random assignment

Answer 38

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups.

Question 39

double-blind procedure

Answer 39

an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.

Question 40

placebo effect

Answer 40

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Question 41

independent variable

Answer 41

in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Question 42

confounding variable

Answer 42

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results.

Question 43

dependent variable

Answer 43

in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Question 44

validity

Answer 44

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Question 45

informed consent

Answer 45

giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Question 46

debriefing

Answer 46

the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Question 47

descriptive statistics

Answer 47

numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.

Question 48

inferential statistics

Answer 48

numerical data that allow one to generalize— to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

Question 49

statistical significance

Answer 49

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.

Question 50

cognitive psychology

Answer 50

the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems.

Question 51

cognitive neuroscience

Answer 51

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Question 52

evolutionary psychology

Answer 52

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.

Question 53

behavior genetics

Answer 53

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.

Question 54

positive psychology

Answer 54

the scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.