Unit 1 Multiple Choice & Short Answer Flashcards
What are the “Gold Star Winners” in terms of study methods?
- Low stakes practice testing
- Spacing out learning
What are the “Runners-Up” in terms of study methods?
- Elaborative interrogation
- Self-explanation (or to others)
- Interleaved practice
What are the “Doesn’t Work on Their Own” study methods?
- Highlighting
- Rereading
How do exams affect learning?
test with delayed feedback > test with immediate feedback > test with no feedback > no test in terms of learning enhancement
What is MBE and why is it important?
Education, Psychology, and Neuroscience combined…importance?
1. Effective teaching can benefit from knowing something about the literal organ doing the learning
2. Studying the brain without studying learning is incomplete
3. We need cognitive/ed psych to bridge from “brain scans to lesson plans”
4. MBE is everywhere!!!
What was Bruer’s primary critique in “A Bridge too Far?”
Argued that neuroscience findings must be filtered through cognitive psychology before they can be relevant to education. That is, there is no appropriate DIRECT connection to draw between neuro and ed because “the ed neuro argument relies on three well-established findings but these findings are taken way too far and are misconceived/embellished because we are trying to make a direct jump.”
3 main examples Bruer used to support his argument
- Synaptogenesis
- Critical periods
- Enriched environments
What was Bruer’s synaptogenesis argument?
Charts of synaptic density exhibit peaks in different cortexes early in development (then drop as we age), leading to a misleading view of a “limited window” for learning. Bruer noted that synaptogenesis actually occurs through adolescence and all of adulthood as well, and this misconception could plague education.
What was Bruer’s critical periods argument?
Hubel & Wiesel’s cat experiments showed that ocular dominance columns could only be reorganized prior to 6 moths of age, giving rise to the idea that we have “critical periods.” Bruer noted that while there is a critical/sensitive period for the visual system, there is not a sensitive period for most things. Again, we shouldn’t be making this leap from neuroscience to education without filtering through the data.
What was Bruer’s enriched environments argument?
“Enriched” environments lead to increased synapse formation in rats, so it has been theorized that we should increase stimulation levels in the classroom. Bruer noted that we don’t need to enrich the environment, but rather ensure that it isn’t impoverished. That is, it’s not an issue of enriched vs. standard environments, it’s more of a social issue between standard vs. impoverished.
Why is “building bridges” between neuro and ed so challenging?
- Many studies show learning changes the brain, alters synapses, changes structures, etc. but it is not obvious how this translates to ed. policy or practice. We need a middle-man/translator (cognitive psych according to Bruer) to establish better conceptual framework across different levels of analysis.
- Diversity of approaches between education and cognitive neuroscience is a source of interference.
What are key research methodology differences between education and neuroscience that make bridging the gap challenging (diversity of approaches)?
- Ed. uses randomized controlled trials to improve ed. materials, while neuro uses brain imaging and analyzes behavior to uncover relationships between mind and brain
- Ed. uses large sample sizes, ensuring diverse samples, among classrooms, schools, etc., while neuro uses small samples with limited diversity in highly controlled settings
- Ed. uses high ecological validity, neuro uses low ecological validity
- Ed. has large number of extraneous variables, neuro has small number of extraneous variables
What are some suggestions for building better bridges between education and neuroscience in terms of teacher education and training?
- Increasing scientific/neuro literacy for educators
- Reducing proliferation of neuromyths
- Applying neuroscience data that might affect pedagogy
What are some suggestions for building better bridges between education and neuroscience in terms of researcher education and training?
- Train neuroscientists in educational process and practice with real world constraints
- Think in multidisciplinary ways beyond the lab (external validity)
- Develop new insights in exploring real world problems and solutions
4 different types of possible bridges to link education and neuroscience
- Prescriptive bridge - NeuroEd helping tell educators what to do (Bruer’s critiques)
- Conceptual bridge - NeuroEd helping educators and students understand why certain methods work or don’t work
- Functional bridge - NeuroEd helping tell educators and students what is possible or impossible for the brain to do
- Diagnostic bridge - NeuroEd helping explain how/why a student is learning/struggling based on specific brain activity or anatomy (i.e., special ed)
example of how MBE was successfully used to build diagnostic bridge
Educational research developed a dyslexia remediating phonological difficulties program, and neuroscientists found that successful remediation altered brain networks to resemble typical readers. In this manner, neuroscience supports education by showing WHY particular programs work.
6 different levels of analysis and why they’re important in the context of bridging
“Ed. neuro faces the challenge of connecting these levels to provide coherent, multi-level explanations for learning and informing educational practice and policy:”
1. Sociocultural - learning is a situated activity taking place in a socio-cultural context
2. First-person level - the direct experience of learners reported by the learners themselves
3. Cognitive/behavioral - the study of mental processes
4. Neural - neural systems involved with cognition (uses brain imaging)
5. Genetic - how genetic markers interact with cognitive abilities, structures, and performance
6. Evolutionary - many cognitive abilities are based on evolutionarily recent cultural acquistions but ancient brain systems
What is ecological vs external validity, and how are the two implicated in MBE?
Ecological validity is how relevant or generalizable experimental results are to the real-world, while external validity is how revelant or generalizable experimental results are to instances outside of that experiment.
MBE researchers should prioritize ecological validity, but many experimental lab tasks give up ecological validity to gain experimental control; moreover, constraints of neuroimaging make ecological validity difficult (e.g., can’t bring MRI into classroom)
4 ways to improve ecological validity to help build bridges
- Pre-test/intervention/post-test - test behavioral/neural activity in lab, adminsiter educational intervention, then measure behavioral/neural measures in lab again after intervention
- Classroom studies - collect behavioral/neural data directly in classrooms
- Lab studies with authentic tasks - use authentic, unconstrained natural tasks (e.g., gaming) that are possible in a lab setting
- Individual differences - link differences in skill with differences in brain activation/genetics, etc. to find correlations
Why is it so hard to build bridges in the context of ecological/external validity?
Education research prioritizes authenticity, socio-cultural context, and learners’ first-peson experiences, while brain research prioritizes reproducibility, reliability, and statistical power
4 lobes of the brain and their functions
example of successful study using ecological validity in educational neuroscience to bridge the gap
A meta-analysis found that brain regions that activate when thinking about yourself are also active when engaged in moral thinking. This sparked thought that implementing a moral activity with family members as examples may be more effective, and pre-test/intervention/post-test in-classroom study found that student service hours increased more following teaching involving family/friends in ethical activities.
gray matter
consists of the cortex and nuclei, the outer surface of the brain; soma and dendrites are found here, and gray matter is critical for higher-order thought and cognition
white matter
consists of myelinated axons/axon tracts that connect regions of the cortex; “white” because myelinated axons appear whiteish in color
neocortex
90% of cerebral cortex in humans is the neocortex; has 6 layers, and many cell layers = lots of synaptic connections = lots of processing power
gyri and sulci and their importance
gyri - “bumps” on surface of brain
sulci - “valleys” on surface of brain
Important because they increase the surface area of the brain, and scientists use them to divide the brain into lobes (i.e., they’re like landmarks)
Where is the central sulcus (Rolandic fissure) located?
separates the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe (runs along posterior frontal lobe)
Where is the lateral fissure (Sylvian fissure) located?
separates the frontal/parietal lobes from the temporal lobe (runs on top of the temporal lobe)
Where is the parieto-occipital sulcus?
runs along the occipital lobe and separates it from the parietal/temporal lobes
superior
above
inferior
below
anterior
situated in front
posterior
situated behind
dorsal
toward the back
ventral
toward the belly
rostral
toward the snout
caudal
toward the tail
Where is the longitudinal fissure located?
runs directly down center of brain, dividing the two hemispheres
medial
middle
lateral
side
3 major cross sections through brain
- Saggital/lateral - separate left and right; think hot dog bun
- Horizontal - separate top and bottom; think bagel
- Coronal - separate rostral and caudal; think sliced bread
What is the focus of cognitive psychology?
focuses on understanding how objects/ideas are represented in the brain and how these representations are manipulated
What are the hypothesized stages of cognitive processing and what is an example experiment involving them (methods of cognitive psychology)?
Step 1: Encode
Step 2: Compare
Step 3: Decide
Step 4: Respond
Experiment: participants press buttons indicating how quickly people process that two letters are the same letter, identical (caps/no caps), both vowels, both consonants, etc. Response times are different for each stimuli, and as the number of items in a set increases, reaction time (cog. processing) is slower. Matching color to word (e.g., word is “Green” in red font) is another example of how info is processed in the brain.
2 methods of cognitive neuroscience
- Brain perturbation approach - perturb brain (administer drug, treatment, etc.) and measure cognitive performance
- Neuromonitoring approach - manipulate task itself and measure cognitive performance
How does positron emission tomography (PET) work?
We select a molecule used in the brain (e.g., glucose or a neurotransmitter) and introduce radioactive tracer into the bloodstream which will attach to the molecule of interest. We can then measure where the radiation comes from in the brain. This is invasive.
How does magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) work?
We surround the skull with powerful magnets, causing hydrogen atoms to align. We then send a magnetic pulse, knocking the atoms out of alignment. We can measure the energy signals emitted by the atoms as they return to original alignment, producing detailed 3D images showing density of different tissues in voxels. There are different relaxation times for different substances or tissues.
How does functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) work?
Same process as MRI, but instead measures BOLD (blood oxygen level dependent) signal. Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood have different magnetic properties and therefore distort the MRI relaxation signal differently. In particular, fMRI measures oxygenated blood as an index of neural activity, but does not directly measure neural events; rather, measures metabolic changes CORRELATED with neural activity (hemodynamic response). For analysis, we use the “subtraction method” in which we can construct a map of changes in regional blood flow that are coupled with local neuronal activity.
What is the subtraction method?
Facet of fMRI analysis in which BOLD signal is compared in response to two distinct stimuli, and we can “subtract” areas that are active in both, allowing for a direct insight into what regions are active in response to particular stimuli (e.g., response in early visual areas for movement vs. blinking)
experiment involving fMRI of early visual areas
Individuals were shown an image that simulated movement (zooming in and out) and another image that was blinking/flashing but with no movement. Using the subtraction method, primary visual cortex had BOLD signal for both movement and blinking, while Area MT has BOLD response for movement but not for the blinking checkerboard, so we know its specific role involves visual interpretation of movement.
When is fMRI used in place of MRI?
MRI is a form of stationary imaging (not ideal for use during activity), so fMRI is used to remedy this problem
What are the advantages of fMRI?
- Widely available
- Great spatial resolution
- Non-invasive
- Better temporal/spatial resolution than PET (temporal res. still terrible relative to other methods!!!!)
What are the disadvantages of fMRI?
- Poor temporal resolution
- Based on assumption that blood flow = neural activity
- Very expensive
- Subjects/experiment must be MRI compatible
- Very sensitive to motion
How does functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) work?
Uses an EEG-like cap to hold “optodes” that emit and detect near-infrared light, which is shined into head and bounces off tissues. This creates a “banana” of light. fNIRS is sensitive to differences in oxygenated and deoxygenated blood (BOLD) signal.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of fNIRS?
Advantages:
1. Small and portable
2. Non-invasive
3. Less sensitive to motion than MRI/fMRI
Disadvantages:
1. Only a small number of sensor locations
2. Cannot image deep tissues
How does diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) work?
Uses MRI scanner, but measures the motion of water in neurons. It is easier for water to diffuse down an axon than across due to the presence of myelin, so we can measure the ease of movement of water molecules to map the white matter fiber tracts (axon tracts) in the brain. This involves fractional anisotropy, which is greatest down axons as aforementioned. Same advantages and disadvantages as MRI.
fractional anisotropy (FA)
preferential diffusion of water in one direction compared to two other directions; foundational measurement of DTI, which takes advantage of the fact that FA is greatest down axons rather than through axons
example study using fractional anisotropy (FA) to measure math performance
A study measured FA in various white matter pathways as well as math skills using math tests, and it was found that greater FA in the SCR (white matter tract) was correlated with better math performance
How does electroencephalography (EEG) work?
Uses an electrode cap to measure neural electrical activity and is particularly great for sleep and epilepsy studies. We can look at individual “chunks” of the brain to localize activity. Different sleep-wake activity (e.g., excited, relaxed, drowsy, etc.) is represented by different EEG frequency bands (e.g., gamma, beta, etc.), and we can use event-related potentials (ERPs) to measure changes in neural electrical activity related to a specific event/stimulus
What are event-related potentials (ERPs)?
ERPs are essentially just averaged EEGs that “clean up the mess” and reduce noise in individual EEG trials. ERPs “wash out” variations in the brain’s electrical activity that are unrelated to the event (stimulus) of interest.
What are the main ERP components (peaks)?
ERP components (peaks) are labeled as positive (P) or negative (N) in order…
1. P1-N1 - represents early sensory neural activity (e.g., selective attention, expert recognition)
2. P2-N2 - represents mid-level sensory activity (e.g., object categorization)
3. P3 - represents cognitive/conscious thinking (e.g., working memory)
Collectively these components allow us to determine the level of processing in the brain based on latency; larger delay means more complex processing (like P3)
What are exogenous and endogenous components of ERP?
Exogenous components are linked to physical aspects of stimulus itself and do not relate to attention/cognition; these components are between 0-100 ms latency and are usually prior to N1 or P1 peaks
Endogenous components are driven by internal cognitive states (i.e., must be awake) and are generally >= 100 ms after stimulus; these components include N1/P1 through P3
How does research use ERP, and what is an example study of ERP involving speech?
We can compare the ERP traces from two very similar conditions, with the sole difference being the thing you want study.
Example: Subjects were exposed to speech conditions with background noise and without background noise, and ERPs revealed a delayed cognitive response with background noise present (greater latency in peaks)
What are the pros and cons of EEG/ERP?
Pros:
1. Excellent temporal resolution
2. Cheap and portable
3. Direct measure of real brain activity
Cons:
1. Poor spatial resolution
2. Hair gel (usually) required (kinda invasive?)
3. Only can record from most superficial layers of cortex
4. Difficult to do with kids (often requires a lot of time)
How does magnetoencephalography (MEG) work?
Electrical current flow in neurons creates local magnetic fields, and changes in the magnetic fields at the surface of the scalp can be measured using superconducting coils (SQUIDs). Very useful for surgery due to extremely high spatial and temporal resolution.
What are the pros and cons of MEG?
Pros:
1. High temporal and spatial resolution (extremely reliable spatial recognition makes MEG good for surgery)
Cons:
1. Very expensive machines
2. Not widely used
How does transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) work?
Generates a rapidly changing magnetic field that induces physiological electric current that causes neurons to fire (“scrambles” neural activity). I.e., TMS literally manipulates brain’s ability to do its job by inducing “virtual lesions” that activate or suppress cortical activity. Can be either single pulse or rTMS (repetitive TMS), and lasts only a short time. Often used to stimulate involuntary movement.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of TMS?
Advantages:
1. Temporary
2. Reasonably focal
3. Can be randomly assigned
Disadvantages:
1. Some areas cannot be stimulated
2. Uncertainty on size of stimulation area
3. May be affecting an excitatory or inhibitory area
example study using TMS in stimulus presentation
Subject presented a letter and is asked to identify it. TMS pulse prior to stimulus presentation does not affect the subject’s ability to identify the letter, but TMS pulse after stimulation causes subject to be unable to identify the letter.
What is single and double dissociation?
Single dissociation:
Temporal lobe damage impairs familiarity memory but not recent memory, and we know these two types of memory are dissociable, but could impairment be due to difficulty and not due to a specific problem?
…Double dissociation addresses this:
Temporal lobe damage impairs familiarity memory but not recent memory and frontal lobe damage impairs recent memory but not familiarity memory. Therefore, we know it’s not just difficulty. A double dissociation refers to documenting two distinct patterns of impairment in two different groups or individuals, proving that two functions are neurologically distinct.
Double dissociation provides much stronger evidence for selective impairment.
What are Brodmann’s areas?
divide the cortex into numbered regions based on cytoarchitecture; as time progressed, it was found that these regions often represent particular functions, pointing to the idea of localization of function
“What” and “Where” pathways
The “what” pathway is a ventral feedforward pathway important for object recognition, and the “where” pathway is a dorsal feedforward pathway important for object localization
Area V4
area of visual cortex that responds to colors
Area MT
area of brain that responds to motion (think fMRI example study)
To what stimuli does area V1 respond?
ALL visual stimuli
What is the fusiform face area (FFA) and what happens when it is damaged?
area of the temporal cortex to which fMRI and EEG show specific responses to faces; however, FFA can further specialize and be involved in visual expertise for other objects (e.g., cars, birds); damage to this region causes prosopagnosia, or an impairment in recognizing faces
