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BIOL 243 > Unit 1: Molecular Basis of Inheritance > Flashcards

Unit 1: Molecular Basis of Inheritance Flashcards

1
Q

What is genetics?

A

The study of heredity and variation in cells of individuals and the population.

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2
Q

What is a gene?

A

The functional unit of heredity and variation is the focus of genetics.

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3
Q

What is molecular genetics?

A

The study of the structure and function of genes at the molecular level.

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4
Q

What does a gene do?

A

It is the DNA sequence that is involved in making RNA and then proteins.

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5
Q

What are alleles?

A

The variant forms of a gene which are caused by a difference in DNA sequence ie., variation in eye color or height.

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6
Q

What is a genotype?

A

The genes that are inherited by the organism.

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7
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

These are the visible traits that are the product of the genotype.

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8
Q

What is a genome?

A

This is the entire DNA sequence (ACGT) of the organism.

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9
Q

Where are genes found?

A

Genes are found on chromosomes and are parts of the genome that encode the RNA and the protein.

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10
Q

What is gene expression?

A

The turning on of the gene to produce RNA and protein.

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11
Q

How is RNA made? (Simplified)

A

The DNA’ component which is the gene is transcripted to form RNA which is then used to produce proteins via translation through the coding RNA - and this can only happen when the gene expression is turned on.

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12
Q

What is the coding RNA?

A

The coding RNA is the RNA molecule that can translate the RNA into proteins such as mRNA.

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13
Q

What are the noncoding RNAs?

A

The noncoding RNA are unable to translate the RNA molecule into proteins such as tRNA and rRNA.

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14
Q

What ultimately determines the phenotype of the cell?

A

The proteins as they are coded by the genetic material.

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15
Q

Why is it impossible to find someone that is an identical copy of you? (Unless you are an identical twin)

A
  1. ) Differentiation of alleles

2. ) Differential regulation of gene and protein expression

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16
Q

What can be gained or lost by DNA splicing?

A

Pros: Variation and health benefits for yourself and other
Cons: Ethical concerns such as attaining perfect beings and not giving a choice for the embryonic splicing

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17
Q

What was the overarching goal for Griffith’s experiment?

A

Find a substance that could genetically transform Streptococcus pneumonia.

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18
Q

What was the overarching goal for Avery, Macleod, and McCarthy’s experiment?

A

Identify DNA as the molecule that transforms S-strain pneumonia to the infective form.

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19
Q

What was the overarching goal for Hershey and Chases’ experiment?

A

Find the final evidence establishing DNA as the hereditary molecule.

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20
Q

What is the Smooth strain(S)?

A

This is the bacterium that is surrounded by polysaccharide capsules and the capsule acts as a protection for the bacterium against the immune system and allows the infection.

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21
Q

What is the Rough strain(R)?

A

This is the bacterium that lacks the capsule thus there is no protection against the immune system so it is killed.

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22
Q

What was the Transforming principle?

A

The interesting element of the experiment that Griffith conducted was that when the S-strain was heated and the R-strain were both added to a mouse the mouse died which was unexpected.

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23
Q

How was it proven that DNA is the genetic material that transforms bacteria?

A

The 3 candidates that scientists had in mind were RNA, DNA, and protein - one by one each one was removed, and the results were concluded the only time the mouse survived was when the DNA was destroyed by using DNAse which was when the bacterium did not transform thus it was concluded that DNA was the source of the transformation.

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24
Q

What is the life cycle of the bacteriophage (virus)?

A

1.) Infection
2.) Then the viral DNA forms a circle
3.) There are 2 options as to what happens next:
- The lytic cycle where the virus replicates and
attacks other cells
- The lysogeny cycle where the virus stays dormant
in the genome and remains asymptomatic until the
immune system is weakened

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25
Q

What are the 3 ways that proteins control all of our functions?

A
  1. ) Enzymes
  2. ) Structural proteins
  3. ) Signalling proteins
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26
Q

How did Hershey and Chase confirm that DNA is the hereditary material?

A

1.) The bacteriophage DNA and proteins were labeled
with radioactive isotopes 32^P and 35^S.
2.) All the infections of E.Coli with radioactive
bacteriophage.
3.) Separate attached bacteriophage and E.Coli with
a blender.
4.) Test the presence of 32^P (DNA) and 35^S (protein)
in detached bacteriophage E.COli cells and progeny
bacteriophage.

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27
Q

What are the components of DNA?

A
  • 5-Carbon pentose sugar = deoxyribose
  • Nitrogenous base
  • Phosphate group
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28
Q

What is a ribose and deoxyribose?

A

Ribose is the sugar for and RNA molecule and deoxyribose is the sugar that is used for a DNA molecule.

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29
Q

What is the difference between a ribose and deoxyribose?

A

The DNA molecule has a hydrogen on the 2’-Carbon while ribose has a hydroxide on the 2’-Carbon.

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30
Q

What is a purine?

A

The double-ringed nitrogenous bases: adenine and guanine the pairing is AT and CG.

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31
Q

What is a pyrimidine?

A

The single-ringed nitrogenous bases: cytosine and thymine the pairing is AT and CG.

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32
Q

What is a nucleoside?

A

There is a deoxyribose sugar and a nitrogenous base.

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33
Q

What is a nucleotide?

A

There is a deoxyribose sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group.

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34
Q

What is a phosphodiester bond?

A

The covalent bond that forms between the phosphate group and the 5’ - Carbon on the deoxyribose sugar and this alternating order forms the backbone of the DNA.

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35
Q

What is the charge on a DNA molecule?

A

Due to the negative charge of the phosphate, the DNA is a negative molecule.

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36
Q

What is Chargaff’s Rule?

A

The percentage of Adenine = Thymine in a DNA molecule and the percentage of Cytosine = Guanine in a DNA molecule.

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37
Q

What is a double helix?

A

The strucutre of the DNA molecule consists of 2 strands that are antiparallel to each other one travels from 5’ to 3’; while the other travels from 3’ to 5’.

38
Q

What is a complementary base pair?

A

The match of the nitrogenous base pairs that is used to replicate the DNA strands however the order when written is always 5’ to 3’.

39
Q

Which is the template/parental strand?

A

This is the old strand of DNA that is used to build the newly replicated strand by determining the complementary bases.

40
Q

Which is the daughter strand?

A

This is the replicated or new strand of DNA.

41
Q

What is the semiconservative replication model?

A

This model is based on the idea that one DNA strand is a new or daughter strand while the second strand is the template or parental strand which coins the term “semi”.

42
Q

What is nucleic acid hybridization?

A

The binding of DNA with DNA as seen in PCR (polymerase chain reaction) or DNA with RNA.

43
Q

What is annealing?

A

A strand of genetic material sticks to another strand of genetic material due to a cooler temperature and the sticking results in the formation of hydrogen bonds.

44
Q

What are chromosomes?

A

These are condensed DNA strands that include both the DNA as well as its associated proteins.

45
Q

What is chromatin?

A

This is a specific region of DNA and its associated proteins.

46
Q

How can you tell the difference between a circular and linear DNA strand?

A

By using an enzyme if you were to cut the DNA strand with just 1 cut if the DNA strand is linear 2 fragments will form if the DNA strand is circular then the result is just 1 linear fragment.

47
Q

What are telomeres?

A

The ends of chromosomes can degrade and break down thus to protect the ends there are these caps that can be used to cover them.

48
Q

What are centromeres?

A

These are the centers of a pair of sister chromatids which are then connected to the spindle fibers to pull them apart during anaphase of mitosis and meiosis.

49
Q

What is the origin of replication?

A

This is the segment of DNA that is being used to determine the complementary new strand and it is closest to the replication fork.

50
Q

What is a haploid?

A

This is the n set of chromosomes and the number of genes.

51
Q

What is a diploid?

A

This is the double set of chromosomes and the number of genes 2n.

52
Q

What is homologous chromosomes?

A

These are the replicated chromosomes which are the same due to the replication process.

53
Q

What are histones?

A

These are positively charged proteins that bind to the DNA.

54
Q

What are nucleosomes?

A

These are a set of 8 histone or histone octamer that wraps around the DNA tightly.

55
Q

What is euchromatin?

A

Genes are actively expressed but the regions of DNA have lower compaction.

56
Q

What is heterochromatin?

A

These are chromosomal regions of high DNA compaction where gene expression because the compaction is high and transcription is silenced.

57
Q

What is constitutive heterochromatin?

A

The regions of DNA that are highly compacted.

58
Q

What is facultative heterochromatin?

A

These regions of DNA can switch to euchromatin depending on cell type and during development.

59
Q

What is the semiconservative model?

A

Each daughter strand is paired to a parental strand.

60
Q

What is the conservative model?

A

Each daughter strand is paired to a daughter strand and each parental strand is paired to a parental strand.

61
Q

What is the dispersive model?

A

The daughter strand will have a mixture of the parental and newly synthesized DNA in it.

62
Q

Which side are the nucleotides added to?

A

The 3’-OH end.

63
Q

What proved that the semiconservative model was the true model of DNA replication?

A

E.coli bacteria was taken and added to a container of 15^N which is a heavy isotope and was given time to generate and impact all of the DNA. Then added to a 14^N container which is a light isotope and after replication several times 2 patterned bands were formed 1 light and 1 heavy therefore there was 1 parental and 1 daughter. The goal was to band the parental strand with the 15^N and then band the daughter strand with 14^N.

64
Q

What is DNA polymerase III?

A

This is an enzyme that synthesizes the new DNA strand by adding the nucleotides to the 3’ -OH end.

65
Q

What is DNA polymerase I?

A

This enzyme removes the RNA primers from the daughter DNA strand so it can be replaced with a DNA segment instead.

66
Q

What is DNA ligase?

A

This enzyme forms hydrogen bonding between the DNA segments and smooths over the daughter strand’s Okazaki fragments by forming these phosphodiester bonds.

67
Q

What is a replisome?

A

This is a molecular machine of enzymes that replicate DNA.

68
Q

What is helicase?

A

This enzyme breaks the hydrogen bond between the 2 parental strands to replicate.

69
Q

What is primase?

A

This enzyme produces RNA primers for DNA polymerase.

70
Q

What is the single-stranded binding protein?

A

This protein helps to stabilize the single DNA strand as a double helix DNA molecule is stable but on its own, it is not and it prevents the parental strands from reannealing.

71
Q

What is DNA topoisomerase/gyrase?

A

Due to the helicase unwinding the DNA helix at the end at the replication fork supercoils form and if left unremoved the replication process will cease thus this enzyme relaxes and removes the supercoils.

72
Q

What is the sliding clamp?

A

This enzyme binds the DNA polymerase III to the DNA template strand in order to improve efficiency.

73
Q

What is the enzyme order for DNA replication?

A
  1. ) Helicase
  2. ) RNA primase
  3. ) Topoisomerase
  4. ) DNA polymerase III
  5. ) DNA polymerase I
  6. ) DNA ligase
74
Q

What is the leading strand?

A

This is the daughter strand that is being synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction toward the replication fork and it is formed continuously with just an initial RNA primer.

75
Q

What is the lagging strand?

A

This is the daughter strand that is being synthesized in the 5’ to 3’ direction away from the replication fork and it is formed discontinuously with many RNA primers and Okazaki fragments.

76
Q

What is the difference between leading and lagging strands?

A

The difference is the direction that the daughter strands are facing relative to the replication fork and the discontinuous or continuous synthesis.

77
Q

How does replication occur in prokaryotes?

A
  1. ) Initiation
  2. ) Elongation
  3. ) Termination
78
Q

How does circular and linear DNA replication differ?

A

Circular DNA has 1 origin of replication whereas linear has many in order to save time and be efficient and it only has 1 replication bubble as a result.

79
Q

What is PCR?

A

This method is used in order to mass replicate DNA sequences by doing the following:
1.) Denature the template helix to separate the template
parental strand by increasing temperature.
2.) Anneal primers to the template strand by decreasing
the temperature.
3.) Extend the strand by increasing the temperature
again and let DNA polymerase III add nucleotides.

80
Q

What is the end problem?

A

For chromosomes (which are condensed DNA’s) the end of the DNA daughter strands are 5’ and this is for the lagging strand. However, since the daughter strand can’t replicate the entire parent strand each successive time the daughter strand is used as a template the DNA will decrease in size and lead to health issues and other problems.

81
Q

What is the solution to the end problem?

A

Telomerase is an enzyme that codes for a repeating set of nucleotides and instead of the DNA the telomerase is withered away after each replication.

82
Q

What happens when the telomere reaches the boundary point?

A

The cell will stop dividing.

83
Q

What else can the length of the telomere inform us about?

A

The approximate age of the individual due to the shortening of the telomeres.

84
Q

What is high fidelity?

A

The complete replication of the DNA not a percent short of the template.

85
Q

What is MMR?

A

The mismatch repair system fixes mistakes that took place during DNA replication that were missed during proofreading.

86
Q

What is the order of the enzymes in MMR?

A
  1. ) MutS and MutL
  2. ) MutH
  3. ) Exo 1
  4. ) DNA polymerase III
  5. ) DNA ligase
87
Q

What do MutS and MutL do?

A

Recognizes the mismatch damage by binding to the DNA.

88
Q

What does MutH do?

A

Endonuclease the nickes from the daughter strands and several nucleotides away from the mismatch.

89
Q

What does Exo 1 do?

A

5’ to 3’ exonuclease excises the region of daughter strands surrounding the mismatch.

90
Q

What is endonuclease?

A

An enzyme that cuts the nucleotide from the chain by breaking the internal bonds between the nucleotides.

91
Q

What is exonuclease?

A

An enzyme that cuts the nucleotides from the chains from the outside of the chain by breaking the external bonds between the nucleotides.

BIOL 243 (4 decks)

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