Unit 1: Intro to human body Flashcards
Define Anatomy and Physiology
Anatomy is the science of body structures and the relationships among them. Physiology is the science of body functions
Six levels of structural organization
Chemical, Cellular, Tissue, Organ, system, and Organism
Six important life processes
Metabolism, Responsiveness, Movement, Growth, Differentiation, and Reproduction
Important life process: Define Metabolism. (Catabolism and Anabolism)
The sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body. Catabolism - the break down of complex substances into simpler components. anabolism - the building up of the complex chemical substances form small, simpler components.
Important life process: Define Responsiveness (Nerve cells and Muscle cells)
The body’s ability to detect and respond to changes. Nerve cells - responds by generating electrical signals known as nerve impulses. Muscle cells - responds by contracting to force the body to move.
Important life process: Define Movement
Motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures inside cells.
Important life process: Define Growth.
Increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells, and increase in the number of cells, or both.
Important life process: Define Differentiation. (Stem cells)
Development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state. Stem cells - pre cursor cells, which can divide and give rise to cells that undero differentiation.
Important life process: Define Reproduction.
Refers either to:
- the formation of new cells occur for tissue growth, repair, or replacement through cell division.
- the production of a new individual through fertilization of an ovum by a sperm cell.
Define Homeostasis.
The maintenance of a relatively stable conditions in the body’s many regulatory systems.
Define Intercellular, Interstitial, and Extracellular fluids.
Intercellular fluid - fluid within cells
Extracellular fluid - fluids outside the cells
Interstitial fluid - the extracellular fluid that fills the narrow spaces between cells of tissue.
What are the different types of Extracellular fluids and what they do?
Blood plasma - RBCs
Lymph - WBCs
Cerebrospinal fluid - Fluid around the brain and the spine
Aqueous humor/vitreous body - fluid that keeps the eye its shape
What two systems control homeostasis?
The nervous and endocrine system
Define Feedback loop. (Controlled variable and stimulus)
A cycle of events in which the status of a body conditions is monitored, evaluated, changed, re-monitored, and re-evaluated. controlled valuable - monitored conditions such as body temp., BP, and/or BG. Stimulus - Any disruption that changes a controlled conditions
What are the feedback loop components? and explain.
Receptor - monitors changes in a controlled condition and sounds input to a control centre. This pathway is called an afferent pathway. The input in the form of nerve impulses or chemical signals.
Control Centre - Processes the information from the receptor and activate effectors when needed. This pathway is called an efferent pathway, since information flows away from the control centre.
Effector - body structures that receives output from the control centre and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition.
Define Negative Feedback system.
This system reverses a change in a controlled conditions. Negative feedback maintains homeostasis.
Define Positive Feedback system.
This system tends to strengthen or reinforce a change in the body’s controlled conditions.
Describe the three body positions.
Anatomical positions - Any region or part of the human body assume that it is in a standard position or reference. Standing up right and facing forwards with each arm hanging on either side and their palms facing forward.
Prone - Body lying facedown.
Supine - Body laying face up.
Describe the five anatomical planes.
Sagittal plane/Midline - vertical plane that divides the body or organ into right and left sides.
Frontal plane - divides the body or an organ into anterior and posterior portions.
Transverse plane - cross sectional or horizontal plane. Divides the body or organ into superior and inferior portions.
Oblique plane - passes through the body or organ at an angle.
Define Anatomical section.
A cut of the body or one of its organs made along one of the anatomical plane.
Name the four body cavities.
Cranial cavity - cranial bones that contains the brain.
Vertebral canal - The bones of the back bone and spine and contains the spinal cord.
Thoracic cavity - The major body cavities of the trunk. formed by the ribs, muscle, sternum, and the thoracic portion.
Abdominopelvic cavity - Divided into the abdominal and pelvic cavity.
What is in the thoracic cavity and what is it covered with?
It contains the pericardial cavity which contains the heart and great vessels, and is wrapped in a serous membrane called the pericardium. It also contains the lungs, which is split into two cavities called lobes, these are covered in a serous membrane called pleura. In the thoracic cavity, it contains the heart, lungs, trachea, esophagus, and the great vessels.
What is in the abdominopelvic cavity and what is it covered with?
Divided into two portions with no walls. The abdominal cavity contains the stomach, liver, spleen, kidneys, small intestines, and most of the large intestines and the gallbladder. The pelvic cavity contains the bladder, internal reproductive organs and portions of the large intestines. The abdominopelvic cavity is covered in the serous membrane Peritoneum.
What does Viscera mean?
The organs inside the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities.
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Define chemistry. (Matter, mass, and weight)
Chemistry is the science of the structure and interactions of matter. Matter - anything that occupies space. Mass - the amount of matter in any object, which does not change. Weight - the force of gravity acting on matter, and does change.
Define the three stats of matter.
Solid - compact and have a definite shape and volume.
Liquids - have a definite volume and assume the shape of the container.
Gases - neither have a definite shape or volume.
What are the four major chemicals?
Oxygen - part of water and many organic molecules. Used to generate ATP
Carbon - Forms the backbone chains and the rings of all organic molecules.
Hydrogen - constituents of water and most organic molecules. Ionized form make the body fluid more acidic.
Nitrogen - components of all protein and nucleic acid
What are the three lesser elements?
Calcium - contributes to hardness of bones and teeth. Ionized form needed for blood clotting, and for contraction of muscles.
Phosphorus - ionized form is the most plentiful cation in the intercellular fluid. Needed to generate action potential.
Define Atom and what does is compose of?
The smallest units of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of the element. Particles that composes an atom is called Subatomic particles.
Name the structures of an atom.
Nucleus - the dense central core
Protons and neutrons - located in the nucleus, protons are positively charged, and neutrons are uncharged.
Electrons - surrounds the nucleus and is negatively charged.
Where do electrons move about in? And how many can it hold?
Electrons move about within certain regions around the nucleus called electron shells. 1st shell - max 2. 2nd shell - max 8. 3rd shell - max 18.
Define atomic number and mass number.
The number of protons in the nucleus is an atoms atomic number. The mass number of an atom is the sum of its protons and neutrons.
Define isotopes and radioactive isotopes.
Isotopes are atoms of an element that have a different numbers of neutrons and therefore different mass numbers. Radioactive isotopes are unstable from of a chemical element that releases radiation as it breaks down.
Define Ions.
An atom that has a positive or negative charge because it has unequal number os protons and electrons. If an atom either gives up or gains electrons, it becomes an ion.
Define Ionization and how it relates to molecules.
The process of giving up or gaining electrons when two or more atoms share electrons, the resulting combination is a molecule.
Define Compounds.
A substance that contains atoms of two or more different elements.
Define Free radicals.
An atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron in the outermost shell. Having an unpaired electron makes a free radical unstable, highly reactive, and destructive.
Define Chemical bonds.
The forces that hold together the atoms of a molecule or compound.
Why is the valence shell important in bonding? And how does it bond?
The likelihood that an atom will form a chemical bond with another atom depends on the number of electrons in its outermost shell called the valence shell.
An atom with a valence shell holding eight electrons is chemically stable, meaning it is unlikely to form chemical bonds with other atoms. It bonds with other atoms to make its valence shell a total of eight. (Octet rule)
Define ionic bonds.
The force of attraction that holds together ions with an opposite charge. (opposites attract)
Differentiate between Cations and Anions.
Cations are positively charged ions. Atoms that contain more protons than electrons.
Anions are negatively charged ions. They contain more electrons than protons.
Define Electrolytes.
Ionic compound that breaks apart into positive and negative ions in a solution. Named because electrolyte solutions can conduct an electrical current.
Define Covalent bonds.
When a covalent bond forms, two or more atoms share electrons rather than gaining or losing them.
Differentiate between Non polar and Polar covalent bond.
Non polar covalent bonds are when two atoms share the electrons equally. Polar covalent bond is when sharing of electrons between two atoms is unequal.
Define Hydrogen bonds.
Forms when a hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge attracts the partial negative charge.
Define surface tension.
A measure of the difficulty of stretching or breaking the surface of a liquid.
How does chemical reactions occur? How does it relate to metabolism?
Chemical reactions occurs when new bonds form or old bonds break between atoms, they are the foundation of all life processes. Metabolism refers to all chemical reactions ocuring in the body.
Define Energy. What are the two forms of energy?
Energy is the capacity to do work.
Potential energy - energy stored by matter due to its position.
Kinetic energy - energy associated with matter in motion.
What is the Law of Conservation of Energy?
Energy can be neither created nor destroyed, it may be converted from one form to another.
Differentiate between Endergonic reactions vs. Exergonic reactions.
Endergonic reaction - absorbing energy in the form of work. Non spontaneous
Exergonic reaction - releasing energy in the form of work. Spontaneous.
Define Activation energy.
The minimum amount of energy required for a chemical reaction to occur. Concentration and temperature of a particle influence the chance that a collision will occur and cause a chemical reaction.
What is a Catalyst?
Catalysts are compounds that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy needed for a reaction to occur. The most important catalysts are called enzymes.
How does chemical reactions occur? And how does a catalyst help?
Chemical reactions to occur, some particles of matter not only must collide with sufficient force, but must hit one another at precise spots. A catalysts helps to properly orient the colliding particles.
What are the 5 types of chemical reactions?
Synthesis, Decomposition, Exchange, Reversible, and Oxidation-reduction reactions.
Define Synthesis reactions.
When two or more atoms, ions, or molecule combine to for a new and larger molecule. Synthesis reactions that occur in the body is referred to as Anabolic which requires energy to grow and build (endergonic).
Define Decomposition reaction.
Splits up large molecules into smaller atoms, ions, or molecules. The decomposition reaction in our body is called Catabolism-release energy (Exergonic).
Define Exchange reaction.
They consists of both synthesis and decomposition reaction. Bonds are both broken and formed and energy is exchanged.
Define Reversible reaction.
Some chemical reactions are only one way. In a reversible reaction, the products can revert to their original reactant.
Define Oxidation-Reduction reaction.
Reactions that break down food molecules to produce energy. Oxidation refers to the loss of electrons which releases energy. Reduction refers to the gain of electrons.
Differentiate between Organic vs Inorganic compounds.
Organic compounds always contain Carbon, usually contains hydrogen and always have covalent bonds. Organic compounds come from living things.
Inorganic compounds usually lacks carbon and are structurally simple. Cannot be used by cells to perform complicated biological functions. Inorganic compounds come from non living things.
Why is water an excellent solvent?
Water is the most important and abundant inorganic compounds in all living system. Due to its polarity and ability to form hydrogen bonds, water makes an excellent solvent.
Differentiate between Hydrophilic vs. Hydrophobic.
Hydrophilic means they dissolve easily in water, they love water.
Hydrophobic are not very water soluble, and they hate water.
Define Hydrolysis.
Decomposition reactions break down large nutrient molecules into smaller molecules by adding water molecules. This type of reactions is called hydrolysis. Hydrolysis reactions enable dietary nutrients to be absorbed into the body.
Define Dehydration synthesis reactions.
Two smaller molecules joint to form a larger molecule.
Differentiate between heat capacity vs. heat of vaporization.
Water can absorb and release relatively large amount of heat with only a modest change in temperature making water have a high heat capacity.
Water also requires a marge amount of heat to change from a liquid to gas making water have a high heat of vaporization.
Define Mixture. Differentiate between solutions, colloids, and suspensions.
A mixture is a combination of elements or compounds that are physically blended together but not chemically bonded.
Solution - have the smallest particles., light can pass through it making it look transparent.
Colloids - Small particles but larger than solution particles and scatter light making it almost see through.
Suspension - May mix with the liquid or suspending medium for sometime. But eventually settles. Not see through.
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Define dissociation in acids, bases and salt.
Dissociate - they separate into ions and becomes surrounded by water molecules.
Acid - a substance that dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions and in one or more anions. Acids are proton donors.
Base - Removes hydrogen ions from a solution. Bases are proton acceptors.
Salt - dissociates into cations and anions, neither a hydrogen ion or hydroxide ions.
What are buffers?
Buffer systems functions to convert strong acids and bases into weak acids or bases. The chemical compounds that can convert strong acids or bases into weak ones are called buffers. Buffers either add or remove protons.
What are Macromolecules?
Small organic molecules can combine into very larger molecules that are called Macromolecules.
Define Functional group.
Determines the chemical activity of an organic molecule.
How do Polymers and Monomers relate?
Macromolecules are usually Polymers. A polymer is a large molecule formed by the covalent bonding of many identical or similar small building blocks molecules called monomers. Polymers are formed from multiple monomers connected together.
Monomers - beads
Polymers - necklace
Define Isomers.
Molecules that have the same molecular formula (atoms) bur arranged differently.
What are Carbohydrates and what is its function?
Carbohydrates include sugar, glycogen, starches, and cellulose. Carbohydrates function mainly as a source of chemical energy needed to drive metabolic reactions. It contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
Define Monosaccharides.
monomers of carbohydrates. A simple sugar that only contains one unit. Simple sugar.
Define Disaccharide.
A molecule formed from the combination of two monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis. Simple dugar.
Define Polysaccharide. What is the main one in our body?
Each polysaccharide molecule contains tens or hundreds of monosaccharides joined together through dehydration synthesis reaction. They are insoluble in water, and are not sweet.
Glycogen is the main polysaccharide, it is made entirely from glucose monomers.
Define Cellulose?
A polysaccharide formed from glucose by plants that cannot be digested by humans.
What are lipids? How does it relate to lipoproteins?
They are the second most important group of organic compound. They are known hydrophobics.
To become more soluble in blood plasma, other lipid molecules join with hydrophilic protein molecule. The resulting lipid-protein complexes are caalle lipoproteins.
Define Fatty acids. What are the two types of fatty acids?
Fatty acids are the simplest lipid, which are also used to to synthesize triglicerydes and phospholipids. The two types are Saturated fatty acids, which contains only single covalent bonds. There is also unsaturated fatty acids which contains one or more double covalent bonds.
Define Triglycerides. What is the difference between fat and oil?
The most plentiful lipid in your body. It contains a single glycerol molecules and three fatty acid molecules. They are used to store unused calories for your body to use later.
A fat is a triglyceride that is a solid at room temperature. An oil is a triglyceride that is a liquid in room temperature.
Define Phospholipids.
Makes up the cell membrane. Made our of a phosphate group, a glycerol molecule and two fatty acid chain.
What are proteins? What are the monomers of proteins?
Proteins are large molecules that contains carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Some contain sulfur. They are largely responsible for the structure of body tissue. Some proteins work to drive muscle contractions.
The monomers of proteins are amino acids.
Define Enzymes.
Enzymes are proteins and they are aso catalyst. They speed up most biochemical reactions.
What are Antibodies?
They are proteins that defend against invading microbes.
How does the body uses amino acids? How is peptide bonds related?
When proteins are digested and broken down, amino acids are left. The body uses amino acids to make proteins. Within a protein, multiple amino acids are linked together by peptide bonds thereby creating a long link. As peptide bonds form, a molecule of water is removed making this a dehydration synthesis reaction.
What are Dipeptides and Tripeptides? How are peptide and polypeptides different?
Dipeptide is when two amino acids combine, adding another results in tripeptide. Further additions of amino acids result in the formation of a chainlike peptide (4-9 amino acids) or polypeptide (10-2000 or more amino acids).
Explain the process of Denaturation.
If a protein encounters an altered environment, it may unravel and lose its characteristics. This process is known as denaturation. These are proteins that are no longer functional. Some can be reversed, but some are permanent. Like frying an egg.
What are the two parts of enzymes?
Apoenzymes is the protein portion and cofactor is the non protein portion.
What are the three important properties of enzymes?
Enzymes are highly specific - each particular enzymes binds only to specific substrates.
Enzymes are efficient.
Enzymes are subject to a variety of cellular control - substances within the cell may either enhance or inhibit the activity of a given enzyme.
What are Nucleic acids? What are its two varieties?
They are huge organic molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. A nucleic acid is a chain of repeating monomers called nucleotides.
There is Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acids (RNA).
What is a Deoxyribonucleic Acid?
They are more commonly known as DNA. They form the inherited genetic material inside each human cells. In humans, each gene is a segment of a DNA molecule. When a cell divides, its hereditary information passes onto the next generation of cells.
What is a Ribonucleic Acid?
More commonly known as RNA. They relay instruction from the genes to guide each cells synthesizes of proteins from amino acids.
What are the three parts that nucleotides consists of?
Nitrogen base- contains four bases.
Pentose sugars - a five carbon sugar called deoxyribose attaches to each base in DNA.
Phosphate group - phosphate groups alternate with pentose sugars to form the ‘backbone’ of a DNA strand.
What are the four nitrogen bases? Name which are purines and which are pyrimidines
Adenine and Guanine - the purines
Thymine and Cytosine - the pyrimidines
In a double helix model, what are the paired bases and what is it held together by?
Adenine pairs with thymine
Cytosine pairs with guanine
They are held together by hydrogen bonds.
How do mutations occur in DNA?
Any changes that occurs in the base sequence of a dNA strand is called a mutation. Some mutations can cause a cells death, cancer, or genetic defect.
What are the three different types of RNA?
Messenger RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA).
What is Adenosine triphosphate?
msot commonly known as ATP. ATP is the ‘energy currency’ of living system.s ATP transfers the energy from exergonic catabolic reactions to power cellular activities that require energy.
What are ATPhase and Adenosine diphosphate (ADP)?
When water is added to ATP, the 3rd phosphate group is removed. The reaction liberates energy. The enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of ATP is called ATPhase.
The removal of the 3rd phosphate group produces a molecule called Adenosine diphosphate.
Explain the process of Cellular respiration. What are its two phases?
The energy needed to attach a phosphate group to ADP is supplied mainly by the catabolism of glucose in a process called cellular respiration.
The anaerobic phase - Absent oxygen. Releases two molecules of ATP. Glucose not completely broken down. Occurs in cytoplasm.
Anaerobic phase - With oxygen. Releases three or thirty two ATP. Glucose completely broken down. Occurs in the mitochondria.
Define cells. What is the study of cells called?
Cells are the basic, living, structural, and functional units of the body. The study of cells is called cell biology or cytology.
What are the three main parts of a cell?
Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.
Define Plasma membrane.
Forms the cells flexible outer surface, separating the cells internal environment from the external environment. It is a selective barrier that regulates the flow of materials into and out of the cell. It also plays. a key role in communicating among cells, between cells and their external environment.
Define Cytoplasm. What are its two compartments?
Consists of all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus.
It has two compartments; cytosol, which is the fluid portion, also called intracellular fluid. Within the cytosol there are the organelles which are little organs in the cell.
Define The nucleus. What is the main component in the nucleus?
The nucleus is a large organelle that houses most of a cells DNA. In the nucleus, each chromosome contains thousands of hereditary units called genes that control most aspects of cellular structure and function.
Describe the Fluid mosaic model.
This model states the molecular arrangement of the plasma membrane resembles. a continually moving sea of fluids lipids that contains a mosaic of different proteins.
Describe what the lipid bilayer is. What are the three types of lipid molecules in it?
The basic structural framework of the plasma membrane. Two back to back layers made up of three types of lipid molecules - Phospholipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids.
How are the phospholipids arranges in the bilayer? What is facing what?
The phospholipid is arranged for the ‘head’ to be facing outward towards the water, loves the water. The ‘tail’ is facing inward, facing each other. They hate the water.
Differentiate between integral and peripheral proteins.
Membrane proteins are classified as integral or peripheral.
Integral proteins extend into or through the lipid bilayer and are firmly embedded into it.
Peripheral proteins are not firmly embedded in the membrane.
What are the functions membrane proteins?
-Some integral proteins form ion channels.
-Integral proteins acts as carriers/
-Integral proteins called receptors.
-Some integral proteins are enzymes that catalyze specific chemical reactions.
-Integral proteins may also serve as inkers which anchors filaments.
Define concentration gradient.
A difference in the concentration of a chemical from one place to another (inside vs. outside of the membrane). Typically, the inner surface of the plasma membrane is more negatively charged and the outer surface is more positively charged.
What is an electrical gradient?
The electric potential that acts on an ion to drive the movement of the ion in one or another direction.
Define a membrane potention.
The difference in charge between the inside and outside of a cell.
