Unit 1 - info processing - chapters 8 and 9

Question 1

Categories are sets of equivalent objects, but they are not always well-defined.
The mental representations of categories are called concepts. Concepts allow us to behave intelligently in new situations. They involve prototypes and exemplars.
Some category members are seen as prototypical.
Many categories fall into hierarchies. Basic categories are more likely to be used.
We build on existing knowledge when learning new concepts.
Schemas are organized knowledge structures

Question 2

We use a variety of shortcuts in our information processing, such as the representativeness, availability, and anchoring and adjustment heuristics. These help us to make fast judgments but may lead to errors.
Algorithms are problem-solving strategies that are based on rules rather than guesses. Algorithms, if applied correctly, are far less likely to result in errors or incorrect solutions than heuristics. Algorithms are based on logic.

Question 3

A variety of cognitive biases influence the accuracy of our judgments.
Overcoming cognitive bias may take awareness of their existence and active work.
Cognitive dissonance occurs when there is an inconsistency between two cognitions or between cognition and behaviour. People are motivated to reduce cognitive dissonance.

Question 4

Intelligence is the ability to think, to learn from experience, to solve problems, and to adapt to new situations. Intelligence is important because it has an impact on many human behaviours.
Psychologists believe that there is a construct, known as general intelligence (g), that accounts for the overall differences in intelligence among people.
There is also evidence for specific intelligences (s), which are measures of specific skills in narrow domains, including creativity and practical intelligence.
The intelligence quotient (IQ) is a measure of intelligence that is adjusted for age. The Wechsler Adult lntelligence Scale (WAIS) is the most widely used IQ test for adults.
Brain volume, speed of neural transmission, and working memory capacity are related to IQ.
Between 40% and 80% of the variability in IQ is due to genetics, meaning that overall genetics plays a bigger role than environment does in creating IQ differences among individuals.
Intelligence is improved by education and may be hindered by environmental factors such as poverty.
Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to identify, assess, manage, and control one’s emotions. People who are better able to regulate their behaviours and emotions are also more successful in their personal and social encounters.

Question 5

Intellectual disability is a generalized disorder ascribed to people who have an IQ below 70, who have experienced deficits since childhood, and who have trouble with basic life skills, such as dressing and feeding themselves and communicating with others. One cause of intellectual disability is Down syndrome.
Extremely intelligent individuals are not unhealthy or poorly adjusted, but rather are above average in physical health and taller and heavier than individuals in the general population.
Men and women have almost identical intelligence, but men have more variability in their IQ scores than women do.
On average, men do better than women on tasks requiring spatial ability, whereas women do better on verbal tasks and score higher on emotional intelligence.
Although their bell curves overlap considerably, there are also average group differences for members of different racial and ethnic groups.
The observed average differences in intelligence between racial and ethnic groups is controversial.
The situation in which one takes a test may create stereotype threat, whereby performance decrements are caused by the knowledge of cultural stereotypes.

Question 6

Language involves both the ability to comprehend spoken and written words and to speak and write. Some languages are sign languages, in which the communication is expressed by movements of the hands.
Phonemes are the elementary sounds of our language, morphemes are the smallest units of meaningful language, syntax is the grammatical rules that control how words are put together, and contextual information is the elements of communication that help us understand its meaning.
Gossip is a large part of how language is used.
Infants are able to discriminate amongst all sounds but lose this ability after the first year and become adult-like in sound perception.
Children acquire language in a predictable sequence.
One explanation of language development is that it occurs through principles of learning, including association, reinforcement, and the observation of others.
Noam Chomsky argues that human brains contain a language acquisition module that includes a universal grammar that underlies all human language. Chomsky differentiates between the deep structure and the surface structure of an idea.
Broca’s area is responsible for language production, wheareas Wernicke’s area is responsible for language comprehension.
Although other animals communicate and may be able to express ideas, only the human brain is complex enough to create real language.