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Higher Human Biology All (Most) Units 2019 > Unit 1 Flashcards Cells > Flashcards

Unit 1 Flashcards Cells

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1
Q

What is differentiation?

A

When unspecialised cells become specialised

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2
Q

What is a somatic cell?

A

Body cells that divide by mitosis

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3
Q

What are stem cells?

A

Unspecialised somatic cells that can divide to make copies of themselves and/or differentiate into specialised cells

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4
Q

How does a stem cell differentiate into one type of cell rather than another?

A

When certain genes are switched on and expressed

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5
Q

Name the three components of a nucleotide of DNA.

A
  1. Deoxyribose sugar
  2. Phosphate
  3. Base
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6
Q

Name the four bases in DNA

A
  1. Adenine
  2. Thymine
  3. Cytosine
  4. Guanine
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7
Q

State the base pairing rule

A

A – T

C – G

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8
Q

What types of bond hold the two DNA strands together?

A

Hydrogen

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9
Q

Which part of the DNA strand is the 3’ end?

A

Deoxyribose Sugar

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10
Q

What is meant by the term anti–parallel in DNA?

A

The two sugar–phosphate backbones run in opposite directions

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11
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

Tightly coiled DNA packaged with proteins

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12
Q

Describe the stages involved in DNA replication

A
  1. DNA is unwound and unzipped
  2. Primer attaches to the exposed bases
  3. DNA polymerase adds nucleotides
  4. Nucleotides added at the 3’ end
  5. One strand copied continuously, the other in fragments
  6. Ligase enzyme joins the fragments together”
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13
Q

State three differences between DNA and RNA

A
  1. DNA has deoxyribose sugar, RNA has ribose sugar
  2. DNA is double stranded,
    RNA is single stranded
  3. DNA has thymine,
    RNA has uracil
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14
Q

Name the four main body tissues

A
  1. Epithelial
  2. Connective
  3. Muscle
  4. Nervous
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15
Q

What makes up a ribosome?

A
  1. rRNA

2. Protein

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16
Q

Describe the stages of transcription

A
  1. RNA polymerase unwinds and unzips DNA
  2. RNA nucleotides bind to complementary bases on DNA
  3. A–U, C–G
  4. RNA polymerase joins RNA nucleotides together
  5. Introns removed
  6. Exons joined together by splicing
  7. Primary transcript formed
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17
Q

Describe the stages of translation

A
  1. mRNA attaches to ribosome
  2. mRNA contains codons (3 bases)
  3. tRNA attaches to a specific amino acid
  4. tRNA contains an anti–codon
  5. Anti–codon binds to codon
  6. Peptide bond forms between amino acids
  7. Start codon begins protein, stop codon ends it
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18
Q

What is a multipotent stem cell?

A

A cell that can differentiate into any cell type within that tissue (eg tissue stem cells)

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19
Q

What is a pluripotent stem cell?

A

A cell that can differentiate into any cell type (eg embryonic stem cells)

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20
Q

What is a germline cell?

A

A cell that gives rise to sperm and egg

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21
Q

What two types of cell division do germ line cells carry out?

A
  1. Mitosis

2. Meiosis

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22
Q

Name two therapeutic uses of stem cells

A
  1. Corneal transplants

2. Skin grafts

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23
Q

Why are stem cells used as model cells?

A
  1. To test drugs on

2. To investigate how diseases develop

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24
Q

What is a tumour?

A

A mass of abnormal cells

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25
Q

If cancer cells fail to attach to each other, they can spread through the body to form…

A

Secondary tumours

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26
Q

Anticodon

A

Three bases on tRNA

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27
Q

Codon

A

Three bases on mRNA (code for a specific amino acid)

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28
Q

Ribosome

A

Site of protein synthesis

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29
Q

Amino acid

A

Building block of a protein

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30
Q

Polypeptide

A

A protein, made up of a long sequence of amino acids

31
Q

Primary transcript

A

mRNA containing both introns and exons

32
Q

Give two examples of post–translational modification

A
  1. Cutting or combining of polypeptide chains

2. Adding phosphate or carbohydrate groups to the protein

33
Q

State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape

A
  1. Peptide bonds
  2. Hydrogen bonds
  3. Interactions between amino acids
34
Q

What is a substitution mutation?

A

Replacing one DNA nucleotide with another

35
Q

What is an insertion mutation?

A

Adding a nucleotide to a DNA sequence

36
Q

What is a deletion mutation?

A

Taking away a nucleotide from a DNA sequence

37
Q

What is missense?

A

Replacing one amino acid codon with another

38
Q

What is a nonsense mutation?

A

Replacing an amino acid codon with a stop codon

39
Q

What is a splice site mutation?

A

Creating or destroying the codons for splicing

40
Q

What is a frame shift mutation?

A

A mutation that means all codons downstream are out of phase

41
Q

What is a deletion chromosome mutation?

A

Loss of a segment of a chromosome

42
Q

What is a duplication chromosome mutation?

A

Repeat of a segment of a chromosome

43
Q

What is a translocation chromosome mutation?

A

The rearrangement of chromosomal material between two or more chromosomes

44
Q

What are bioinformatics?

A

The use of computer technology to identify DNA sequences

45
Q

What are systematics used for?

A

Comparing the human genome with genomes of other species

46
Q

Describe the process of PCR

A
  1. DNA heated (to separate strands)
  2. DNA cooled (to allow primers to bind)
  3. DNA heated (to optimise DNA polymerase which replicates the DNA)
47
Q

What is a DNA probe?

A

Short, single strands of DNA that detect the presence of specific DNA sequences

48
Q

What is a catabolic pathway?

A

A pathway that involves the breakdown of molecules and releases energy

49
Q

What is an Anabolic pathway?

A

A pathway that is biosynthetic (making bigger molecules) and requires energy

50
Q

Describe induced fit

A

When a substrate approaches the enzyme, it causes a change in the shape of the active site that allows the substrate to bind

51
Q

Describe activation energy

A

The energy required for an enzyme–catalysed reaction to occur

52
Q

Describe a competitive inhibitor

A

Binds to the active site, blocking the substrate from binding early in the pathway

53
Q

Describe a non–competitive inhibitor

A

Bonds away from the active site but causes a permanent change in the shape of the active site

54
Q

What is feedback inhibition?

A

End product binds to and inhibits an enzyme that catalysed a reaction

55
Q

State two functions of ATP

A
  1. Providing energy

2. Phosphorylation of molecules

56
Q

What is the end product of glycolysis?

A

Pyruvate

57
Q

Name the three stages of aerobic respiration

A
  1. Glycolysis
  2. Citric acid cycle
  3. Electron transport chain
58
Q

What happens in the energy investment stage of glycolysis?

A

ATP is used up

59
Q

What happens in the energy pay–off stage of glycolysis?

A

ATP is produced

60
Q

Name an enzyme in glycolysis that produces an intermediate substance in an irreversible step

A

Phosphofructokinase

61
Q

How is acetyl co–enzyme A produced?

A

Pyruvate&raquo_space; acetyl

Acetyl + co–enzyme A&raquo_space; acetyl co–enzyme A

62
Q

How is citric acid produced?

A

oxaloacetate + acetyl co–enzyme A&raquo_space; citric acid

63
Q

Describe what happens during the citric acid cycle

A
  1. Citric acid is produced
  2. ATP is produced
  3. Carbon dioxide is released
  4. NADH/FADH is produced
  5. Oxaloacetate is regenerated
64
Q

Name the enzyme that removes hydrogen ions and electrons from molecules

A

Dehydrogenase

65
Q

Name the two co–enzymes that pick up hydrogen ions and electrons

A
  1. NADH

2. FADH2

66
Q

How is ATP made in the electron transport chain?

A
  1. High energy electrons are used to pump hydrogen ions across a membrane.
  2. The hydrogen ions flow back through the membrane using the protein ATP synthase.
  3. TP is synthesised.
67
Q

What is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration?

A

Oxygen

68
Q

Name respiratory substrates

A
  1. Glucose
  2. Starch
  3. Glycogen
  4. Fat
  5. Protein
69
Q

What is meant by ‘conservation of resources’?

A

ATP is only made when needed

70
Q

What is the function of creatine phosphate?

A

It breaks down to release creatine and phosphate that is used to convert ADP to ATP

71
Q

Describe what happens in anaerobic respiration.

A
  1. Hydrogen from NADH is added to pyruvate to become lactic acid
  2. This regenerates NAD which is needed for ATP production
72
Q

Which type of muscle fibre has lots of mitochondria?

A

Slow twitch

73
Q

Which type of muscle fibre does not have a good blood supply?

A

Fast twitch

74
Q

What type of events are fast twitch muscle fibres best for?

A

Bursts of activity (eg sprinting, weight lifting)

Higher Human Biology All (Most) Units 2019 (4 decks)

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