Unit 1 Exam Flashcards
What is Science?
Observations description and organization of organisms
What does science do?
Provides explanations for observable phenomena
Metacognition
awareness and understanding of one’s thought process
Examples of Metacognition
- beliefs about the learning process
- confidence in one’s ability to learn
- judgments about what one has learned
- deciding how to study/learn
- reflecting on the process
(e.g., awareness that you may have difficulty remembering people’s names in social situations, reminding yourself that you should try to remember the name of the person you just met)
Metacognition Planning
- what strategies will I use to study?
- how much time do I plan on studying? Over what period, and how long?
- which aspects of the course material should I spend more or less on, based on my current understanding of the material?
metacognition monitoring
- at what point am I following my plan for my studying for the exam? Do I know all the material?
- to what extent am I taking advantage of all the available learning support options?
- am I struggling with motivation to study? If so, do I remember why I am taking this course?
- Am I getting clarification on the material I am confused about? If not, how can I get clarification?
metacognition evaluation
- what about my exam prep worked well that I should remember to do next time?
- what did not work well that I should change or try to do differently in the future?
- what questions did I not answer correctly? What am I still confused about?
Evolution explains…
both the unity and diversity of life
diversity
Heritable changes occur as a result of natural selection.
unity
descent with modification
biology is an _______________ exercise of ____________ curiosity
organized
human
Science is based on __________ knowledge.
empirical
empirical knowledge
what can be demonstrated by observation and experience
Science is committed to ______________ and thinking of _____________ _____________
rationality
alternate explanations
Sciences emphasizes ________________
repeatability
Science is committed to _______________ and _______________
testability
experimentation
Science searches for ____________ principles operating in the ____________ __________
general
natural world
Science involves _________ and __________
creativity
ingenuity
Sciences often requires ______________
teamwork (cooperation)
Science is NOT
- democratic (based on votes - ideas are accepted or rejected based on evidence)
- what we would like to believe
- arguing in favor of a position
- personality and persuasiveness
- just collected lots of facts
- moral (principled, concerned with right or wrong, good or evil) - but scientists can be
Characteristics of a Fact in Science
- observation or idea that has been repeatedly confirmed
- can depend on context and ability of the observer to observe (new technologies or tools can change facts)
– (e.g., an atom is the smallest existing thing - new technology proves that atoms can be split, making the “splitting” the smallest thing in existence)
Characteristic of Law in Science
- descriptive empirical generalizations
– (e.g., when you start a new job, you meet a few employees of the new company and form an impression of the company as a whole) - states what happens under certain conditions of nature (not explanatory)
– (e.g., the law of gravity: an object will always fall towards earth due to the pull of gravity)
Hypothesis
- statements of what might be true
- tentative (done without confidence) explanation to account for observed phenomena
- testable (predictive) - a good hypothesis can always be proven wrong
(usually [but not always] an if… then… statement)
e.g., IF a person gets 7 hours of sleep, THEN they will feel less fatigue than if he sleeps less than 7 hours
e.g., consumption of sugary drinks every day leads to obesity
Theory
- the body of connected statements to explain an observation
- based on accumulated evidence and reasoning
- an explanation that has stood the test of time and is supported well by empirical evidence
- usually broader (more inclusive) than a hypothesis
- not just a hunch
Most important to least important (laws, facts, hypothesis, and theory) in the eyes of science
MOST IMPORTANT
theories
laws
hypothesis
facts
LEAST IMPORTANT
Most important to least important (laws, facts, hypothesis, and theory) in the eyes of most people
MOST IMPORTANT
facts
laws
theories
hypothesis
LEAST IMPORTANT
Scientific method: inquiry
What are the elements of inquiry
- challenge
- adventure
- luck
- careful planning
- reasoning
- creativity
- cooperation/competition
- patience/persistence
What is the process of the scientific method?
observation -> question -> hypothesis -> predictions -> Test: experimental or observation
A test may not always ___________ a hypothesis: you may have to _____________ a hypothesis or _____________ a ______ hypothesis
support
revise
create
new
Science is all about the __________
questions
A hypothesis leads to testable predictions meaning… (multiple answers)
- possible explanation
- reflecting on past experience
- multiple hypotheses
- should be testable
- can be falsified (eliminated) but should/cannot be “proven”
- usually supported by a large number (preponderance) of evidence
Hypothesis-based science is…
explaining nature
When explaining nature (hypothesis-based science) you are seeking
- natural causes/explanations for observation (data)
- involves proposing and testing hypotheses
- deduction - goes from general to specific (making predictions based on general knowledge)
Discovery (finding a discovery) is basically…
describing nature
you explain discovery through
- observations (analysis of data)
- induction (deriving generalizations from more specific observations)
different types of observations (analysis of data)
- qualitative (interpreted based on the description and related language)
- quantitative (number-based, countable, or measurable data)
induction
deriving generalizations from more specific observations
Direct Experiments are
- holding constant/control factors other then those you are testing
- treat 2 or more groups (with and without the factor of interest)
- observe outcomes
- studies can also be observational (natural experiments)
Observational studies
research technique where you observe participants and phenomena in their most natural settings
indirect experiments
- used when phenomena are not directly observable
- uses interference
design experiment
- control and experimental groups
- replication
- examine one variable at a time
- repeatable
Gather data
- measurement (what to measure and how)
- quantitative data
- qualitative data
interpret results
- analysis (using statistics
- presentations at scientific meetings
- media/public interpretation
4 Lessons Every GOOD scientist must learn (by Ethan Siegel)
- you are full of misconceptions (work to “unlearn” them)
- you will misinterpret what studies (new and old) mean until you have a sufficiently strong foundation of knowledge in that particular area
- previous “consensus” opinions are often insufficient or even wrong today
- you will have “favorites” among the speculative ideas and hypotheses. And they’re probably all incorrect
Ways of knowing
authority, revelation, logic, science, beliefs, empirical evidence, nature, uncertainty, supernatural power, theory, hypothesis, fact
Scientific inquiry
observations, questions, hypothesis, prediction, experiment, data, interpretation, conclusion, communication, discovery science, hypothesis testing, falsifiable
a scientific experiment
Direct experiment, indirect experiment, variables held constant, variable manipulated, control, replication, observable phenomena, phenomena not observable, interference, observations, qualitative/quantitative data, direct measurement
Strengths and limitations of the scientific method
STRENGTHS
- science never leads to the absolute truth but to more reliable knowledge
- Scientific can be used to investigate falsifiable hypotheses
WEAKNESSES.
- the scientific method attempts to eliminate bias or prejudice in the experimenter but the intentions of the scientists can escape bias
- personal and cultural beliefs can influence the scientific method
Bioethics
- the study of typically controversial ethics brought about by advances in biology and medicine
- moral discernment as it relates to medical policy, practice, and research
- concerns the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among bio,ogy, technology, medicine, politics, law, philosophy
examples of Bioethics
- respect of autonomy (organ donation and transplantation
- genetic research (henrietta lacks)
- death and dying (what the environmental concerns are)
Scientific Influences in society, example
- Nazi concentration camps, medical research projects involving experimentation on human subjects were conducted (to benefit German troops)
– freezing/hypothermia
– sterilization studies via radiation
– sleep experiment
– integrity of the Nuremberg Medical Code
Numberg Medical Code
- no experiment should be conducted where there is a prior reason to believe that death or disabling injury will occur (except if the physicians conducting the investigation also serve as subjects)
– the voluntary, informed consent
– not random or unnecessary in nature, but liable to yield fruitful results for the good of society
– based on the results of animal experimentation and a knowledge of the natural history of the tested disease (human trial is the last step, not the first step)
–should not cause death or injury
– proper preparations and adequate facilities provided to protect subjects
– conducted only by scientifically qualified persons
– Subjects can quit at any time
– the scientists must stop the experiment if it harms the subject
Science is ALWAYS culturally situated.
- embedded in the culture, history, values, and interests of those asking the questions, doing the work, funding the work
Sexism in Scientific Practices
- exclusion of women from scientific studies, particularly those investigating human health and disease
- influence of cultural assumptions about gender on science (male/female differences overemphasized… gendered language and metaphors bias investigation)
- under-representation of women as scientists
Jennifer vs. John(research question: how was the experiment designed (discovery or hypothesis, direct or indirect): what were the results)
research question: is there gender bias in the science when it comes to hiring a man vs. a woman
How was the experiment designed: hypothesis and it was indirect
the results: based on the identical resumes, John was more likely to get hired, mentored, or the ability to shadow over Jennifer even though the resumes were identical
There is more than one ______ for an organism. And more than one __________ for a common name
name
organism
Taxonomy
humans (especially biologists) like to name, organize, and classify things
purpose of taxonomy
- to have a common language
- to understand relationships among organisms
- to be able to fit discoveries into our existing knowledge of diversity
Nomenclature
assignment of unique names of organisms
nomenclature
1st name: __________ name (homo)
2nd name: ____________ name (sapiens) humans are ____________
Genes
species
homo sapiens
Classification in science
grouping of organisms logically according to shared characteristics (Linnaeus)
- groups called taxa (singular = taxon) defined by set of important characteristics shared by all in group
- hierarchical
- usually reflects evolutionary relationships
hierarchical classification
kingdom -> phylum -> class -> order -> family -> genus -> species
Ex of hierarchical classification (with humans)
kingdom: Animalia
phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Homindae
Genus: Homo
Species: sapiens
Ex of hierarchical classification (with cat)
kingdom: Animalia
phylum: Chordata
Subphylum: Vertebrata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Family: Felidae
Genus: Felis
Species: Catus
5 kingdom classification system is _________ it is based on cell structure, mode of nutrition, life cycle, energy source
outdated
What is monera
single-celled prokaryotes
what is Protista
single-celled eukaryotes
field of Biology is concerned with
classifying organisms based on their evolutionary relationship
phylogenies (phylogenetic trees)
Relationships based on observed similarities and differences among organisms allow us to construct evolutionary histories.
- series of branch points = divergence of two lineages/groups from a common ancestor (sequence of branches sometimes but not always related directly to time of divergence)
Systematics
- the science of describing the diversity of life
- encompasses both taxonomy and phylogenetics
taxonomy
the science of naming and classifying organisms
phylogenetics
- the study of evolutionary relations among taxa
- phylogenetic tree is a diagram depicting the evolutionary relationship among taxa
Evolution explains both_________ and _________ of life
unity
diversity
unity
decent with modification
diversity
Heritable changes occur as a result of natural selection
Unity of life (standard features)
- membrane structure
- types of proteins, carbohydrates, and other large molecules
- genetic material (nucleic acids: DNA sequences)
- often shared structural features (forelimbs of tetrapods)
- shared features of embryonic development (genes that determine body organization)
Special Creation- Creationism (accepted explanation up to 1830’s)
- species were created independently of one another (implies creator)
- species have not changed over time
- adaptions and diversity as evidence of the qualities of the creator
- the creation event was recent (6000 years ago)
Evolution “Decent with modification” = alternative explanation
- species all descended from a common ancestor
- species have changed over time
- the process takes a long time (100’s of millions of years)
Evolution is
all the changes that have transformed life on Earth from its earliest beginning to the diversity that characterized it today (descent with modification… change in the genetic composition of a population from generation to generation)
Fact is (in the eyes of science)
the pattern of evolution that exists in the natural world
theory is (in the eyes of science)
the process that explains the pattern; the mechanism of evolutionary change
Creationism is a ____________ concept.
religious concept
Evidence for evolution - relatedness of life forms (UNITY)
- taxonomy
- comparative studies (homology and analogy)
- biogeography
Evidence for evolution - species change through time (DIVERSITY)
- evidence from living species
- evidence from the fossil record
Evidence of Evolution - the earth is old
- geology
comparative studies
if organisms share common ancestry… common underlying body plan of organisms, many common features
homology is
similarities among organisms as a result of shared ancestry
Homologous structure: anatomical signs of evolution in humans, cats, whales, and bats)
All have a humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.
Molecular similarities among organisms examples
DNA in chimps and humans are 99% similar
protein sequence similarities (hemoglobin) - humans and gorillas differ in 1/146 aa
Genetic code is __________
universal
Vestigial Structures
A functionless rudimentary homolog of a body part - remnants of structures that served an essential function in the organism’s ancestors (no apparent use in the organisms where found)
examples of vestigial structures in humans
- appendix
- wisdom teeth
- body hair
examples of vestigial structures in Whales
hip bones
Analogy
Similar in function but usually constructed differently since species are not closely related (when traits arise when groups independently adapt to similar environments)
examples of analogous structures
- wings in butterflies and bats
- the pandas thumbs
- streamlined body for of sharks and whale
Phylogenetic trees are constructed with data from ___________ structures
homologous
Homologous structures reveal
the pattern of evolution in the phylogenetic tree
analogous structures obscure
the pattern of evolution in a phylogenetic tree
biogeography
the study of the geographic distribution of organisms
Terrestrial organisms are divided into regions not based on climate but based on ____________ ____________
geographical location
Biogeographical patterns have similarities within regions:
closely related species are found in the same geographic areas due to shared ancestry
Biogeographical patterns have differences among regions:
geographic areas that are distanct from each other contain different species (although sometimes similar looking sue to convergent evolution
Biogeographical patterns island groups
often inhabited by forms similar to those on the nearest mainland but belonging to different species due to shared ancestry and later divergent evolution
Convergent evolution results in analogous structure:
Similar in function but constructed differently since species are not closely related (ex: European rabbit and Patagonia hare)
common ancestor with geographically related species remains clear
examples of convergent evolution
Cacti in the American southwest and Claudia (euphorb) from Madagascar have analogous structures.
Divergent Evolution
closely related species in different environments
- experience different pressures
-evolve different traits
Species change: animal and plant breeding examples
- dog/pet breeding
- oil content in corn
- backfat in pigs
- milk production in cows
Artificial selection
humans select desirable traits in agricultural products or animals, rather than leaving the species to evolve and change gradually without human interference
Fossil Records
provides direct evidence that organisms change over time (chronicles of events that occurred in the past)
examples of fossil records
- insects stuck in tree resin
- frozen mammoth
- hard parts tich in minerals
- bones and teeth vertebrates
- shells of invertebrates
- leaves pressed between sediment
Remnants of organisms:
pores or spaces in hard parts of organisms filled or grounded water dissolves organic matter, replaced by minerals
Fossil Record determinants
- most fossils are only the hard parts of organisms
- even hard parts are rarely fossilized unless occupy habitats like swamps, estuaries, beaches, undisturbed
-fossils need to be exposed by erosion or cutting through layers to be found
Principles of Uniformitarianism
- geologic processes taking place now are the same processes that always operated
principle of superposition
because of the process of sedimentation, older rocks are found below younger rocks (older fossils found in strata below younger fossils
Geological time
organized into periods based on fossil strat (relative dating)
- eras
- periods
- epochs
defined by distinct fossil fauna
borders marked by major extinction or diversification of groups
absolute dating
rates of decay are known for many radioactive isotopes half-life = amount of time it takes for 50% of parent isotopes to decay to daughter isotopes
(measures relative amounts of isotopes and date fossils to put dates on geologic time scale)
isotopes
atoms of the same element that contain an identical number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons
Fossil records demonstrate that organisms have changed over time (older fossils are)
less resemblance to current species, simpler forms
fossil records and the forms in evolution
older fossils
intermediate forms
new species arise and others become extinct
Extinction
the disappearance of a taxon (species, genus, etc)
Extinction generally estimated that more than 99% of species have ever lived meaning
Most species that ever existed are now extinct. (several mass extinction events - biological diversity is now being lost at astounding rates)
Some species do not change.
A horseshoe crab (550 million years ago) have largely stayed the same from millions of years ago to now
Dating the earth tells us the ___________ processes to cause the diversity that is observed
evolutionary
We can measure how old the earth is by measuring what objects in the solar system.
moon rocks and meteorites
the study of evolution is
a scientific endeavor
all available evidence points to the evolution as an _____________ for the diversity and unity of living organisms
explanation
Paradigms
A broad collection of ideas, assumptions, and methodologies that guide research in any field of science
(when the evidence against an established paradigm reaches a crucial level, a “scientific revolution” or new way of viewing the world emerges.)
Examples of paradigm shifts
the belief that the Earth is center of the universe, and now the sun is the center of the universe
Aristotle Scala Natura
role of natural science to collect and classify all links in the “great chain of being” so that God’s wisdom could be appreciated (fit organisms to their environment seen as evidence that the creator designed each species for a particular purpose)
Carlous Linnaeus (1707-1778
- cataloged, named, and classified plants and animals into a hierarchy
- thought about evolution as he studied and organized but names had opposite effect -> implied fixty
Comte de Buffon 1707 - 1788
- french naturalists talked of “common ancestors” variation within species
- had idea that life increases faster than food, therefore there is a struggle for survival
Jame Hutton 1728-1799 (principle of Uniformitarianism)
- steady uniform actions of the earth account for its features
- processes that occur now are no different than those that have always taken place - sedinmentation mountain building, erosin
- implied that the earth was very old
Charles Lyell 1830 (33 principles of geology)
- supported Hutton’s views
- for many who believed the earth was old, change in species was still not accepted - believe in “catastrophic.” (extinction) and multiple creations (new species)
- Lyell responded with uniformitarianism
Jean-Baptiste Lamrack 1744-1829
- First to attempt to explain evolution with a mechanism = “striving”
- use & disuse of parts would modify organisms -> these changes would be passed to offspring “inheritance of acquired characteristics.”
Thomas Malthus, Economist 1766-1834
1798 Essay on the Principles of Populations
- the supply of eaters is greater than the supply of food, so there is a “struggle” among the eaters for food
- only the strongest would survive
Darwins Contribution (ships natrualists HMS Beagle 1832-36)
- observed and collected biological and geological specimens
origin of species
all organisms have descended with modification from common ancestors using scientific method to make predictions and test them
Origin of species examples
evidence: fossil record, geographic distribution of organisms, comparative anatomy and embryology, selective breeding
Natural Selection
variation among orgaisms in the phenotypes (morphology, behavior, physiology)
fitness is
an organisms contribution to the next generation
some pheotypes result in organisms living _____________ and having _________ offsprings than others (differential fitness)
longer
more
Natural Selection Result
evolutionary change in population
Overtime natural selection can lead to
adaption
In response to changes in the environment, the population may change or diverge, giving _______________________
Rise to a new species.
