Unit 1 (Chap 1-3) Study Guide Flashcards
Anatomy
The study of body structure
Physiology
The study of body function
Sagittal Plane
Vertical division of the body into right and left planes
Frontal Plane
Divide the body into front and back proportions
Transverse Plane
Divide the body from top to bottom, cut horizontally.
Anterior
Near the front of the body or nearer to the head
posterior
Further to the back, near the rear of the body
Organ System
group of organs working together to create a system/function (Respiratory)
Regional Anatomy
Study of Anatomy based on regions of the body (muscles, nerves, shoulders, legs)
Pathophysiology
study of abnormal body functions or malfunctions of the body (developmental)
True or False: Structure goes with Function.
True at multiple levels
Macroscopic
Gross anatomy (bigger: what you can see, surface)
Microscopic
What you cannot see at a surface level needs a microscope.
Histology: Tissue
Cytology: Cells and Organelles
Levels of Complexity move from…
Micro to Macro
Chemicals
Molecules (made of atoms)
Cells
The smallest unit of life (chemicals + organelles)
Tissues
Fabrics of cells (conjoined)
Organs
Made of tissues to perform a function
Organ System
made of organs working together
Organism
The whole person (every part of the chemicals, cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems working together)
Endocrine System
Glands that secrete hormones into the blood
Lymphatic System
body defenses, fluid balance (lymphoid)
Integumentary System
skin, hair, nails
Necessary Life Functions
- Boundaries
- Responsiveness
- Movement
- Digest
- Metabolism
- Excretion
- Reproduction
- Growth
True or False: Blood vessels are tissues
False, they are organs.
True or False: Hormones are blood-born messengers.
True
Survival Needs
- Oxygen
- Water
- Nutrients
- Appropriate Temperature
- Appropriate Pressure
Homeostasis
The ability of the body to maintain a relatively constant internal environment regardless of the changes to the environment
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
Parts that keep a certain variable within a specific range
Components of a Homeostatic Control Mechanism
Receptor is…
Afferent is…
Control Center is…
Efferent is…
Effector…
- detector
- pathway towards controller
- compare (it checks if the status matches the desired set point)
- pathway away from controller
- change maker
Negative Feedback Mechanism
Main ways to keep homeostasis
Response = oppose (counteracts)
Examples of Negative Feedback Mechanism
Shivering (warm the body up)
Sweating (cooling the body down)
Positive Feedback Mechanism
makes things happen fast
response amplifies stimulus
Examples of Positive Feedback Mechanism
Platelets attract platelets
(pressure -> increase oxytocin -> increase contraction-> back to pressure and repeats the process in labor and delivery)
Homeostatic imbalance often results in…
disease
example of homeostatic imbalance
addiction
diabetes
hypertension = blood pressure controls fail
Anatomical Position
Standing
arms by sides
palms forward
Intermediate
in between
medial
toward center
lateral
to the side
superficial
close to skin
deep
internal
Left and Right are from the perspective of…
the specimen
Superior
Up (cranial) - trunk + head
inferior
down (caudal) - trunk + head
Proximal
closer to the trunk (for limbs)
Distal
further from the trunk (for limbs)
Anterior
ventral (front)
Posterior
dorsal (back)
medial
toward center
lateral
toward side
superficial
closer to skin
deep
more internal
Occipital Region
back to head
Buccal Region
cheek/mouth
Mental Region
Chin
Cervical Region
Neck
Acromial Region
Shoulders/point of shoulders
Axillary Region
Armpit
Brachial Region
Arm
Carpal Region
Wrist
Metacarpal Region
Palm
Pollex Region
Thumb
Intgunial Region
Groin
Perineal Region
Anogenital skin between genitals
Patellar Region
Kneecap
Popliteal Region
Posterior of Knee
Peroneal Region
Outside lower knee (fibular)
Calcaneal Region
Heal
Tarsal Region
Ankle
Metatarsal Region
Arch
Plantar Region
Bottom of the foot (sole)
Hallux Region
Big Toe
Dorsal Body Cavity
Home of the central nervous system
Cranial Cavity
Brain Cavity
Vertebral Cavity
Cavity for spinal cord
Ventral body Cavity
Thorax and abdomen
Thoracic Cavity
Multiple Subcategories
* Mediastinum
* Two Pleural Cavities
Mediastinum
Space where the heart sits, trachea, esophagus
Two Pleural Cavities
lungs
Abdominal Cavity
digestive
Pelvic Cavity
digestive
reproductive
urinary
QUICK SIDE NOTE: Meta means…
beyond
Absominopelvic Areas
Superior
* Epigastric (medial)
* 2 hypochondriac areas (laterally)
Central
* Umbilical (medial)
* 2 lumbar areas (laterally)
Inferior
* hypogastric (medial)
* inguinal (iliac) areas (laterally)
The body is divided into _______ quadrants.
four
What are the four quadrants of the body
upper
lower
left
right
*Liver: upper right
*Stomach upper left
Matter is anything that
has mass and takes up space (solid liquid and gas)
Matter exists in how many forms… what are those forms
3 forms
solid, liquid, and gas
Energy is
related to the movement of matter
A molecule is
mutiple atoms coming together
Kinetic energy is the energy that is
in motion
Potential energy is the energy that is
stored up
Chemical Energy is in…
chemical bonds
Electrical Energy involves…
charged particles
Mechanical Energy is the…
matter moving
Energy can be converted from
one form to another
Elements are…
Substances that cannot be broken down by chemical means (flavor of atoms)
ex: pure helium is a unique substance that can’t be broken down by other chemicals
What are the four elements that roughly makeup 96% of body weight?
Carbon
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Atoms are the _________ particles of an ___________ that retain the characteristics of said _____________
smallest
element
element
elements are designated by ______ or __________ abbreviations called ____________ ______________ found on the periodic table
one-
two-letter
atomic symbols
True or False: Each atom has a central nucleus packed with neutrons and electrons.
False: Each atom is packed with protons and neutrons
Protons
(+) positive charge; 1 amu (atomic mass unit)
Neutrons
(no charge) neutral 1 amu (atomic mass unit)
Electrons
(-) negative charge; negligible mass
Atoms are electrically neutral except when
In ion form, they gain or lose electrons.
Elements are identified based on…
The number of protons (the atomic number)
Mass number is in
AMU (atomic mass number)
*Sum of protons and neutrons
Isotopes
Variations of an element that differ in # of neutrons
Molecule
group of atoms (2 or more) bonded together
* O2
Compound
molecule containing 2 or more elements
*Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
* water (H20)
Mixtures
substances made of two or more components mixed physically
solutions
Homogeneous mixture
solvent - whats more of
solute - whats less of
concentration - how much solute is in the solution
Suspensions
A heterogeneous mixture in which the solid particles are spread throughout the liquid without dissolving in it
Colloid
mixture is two or more substances mixed but not chemically combined
Mixtures
no chemical bonding occurs between molecules (blended)
can separate mixture with a filter on centrifuge
Compounds
bonded
chemical bonds
to make molecules
A bond is
an energy relationship between electrons of reacting atoms
the role of electrons in bonding is
octet rule
atoms=most stable when outer shell is filled with 8 electrons -> or 2 if atom is very small
Ionic bond
transfer
Ion
when a bond is broken; charged particle (change = gain or loss)
Anion
(-) negatively charged particle (gained 1 or more electrons
Cation
(+) positively charged particle (lost 1 or more electrons)
Covalent bonds form when
Electrons are shared between two atoms.
single vs double vs triple bonds
number of pairs being shared (electrons) in the outer shell to meet the octet rule
nonpolar molecule
when electrons shared evenly (equal)
Polar Molecules
when sharing of electrons in unequal
Chemical reactions occur when
bonds are formed, rearranged, or broken
synthesis reaction
build a large product = anabotic
decomposition reaction
breakdown a large reactant = catabolic
exchange reaction
swapping parts from two reactants
Exergonic reactions __________ energy (break bonds in larger molecules) as a product, while endergonic reactions ____________ energy (building molecules + forming new bonds between monomers)
release
absorbs
mass action
if you have lots of a substance, it is more likely to be a reactant
A+B <-> C
What are the four factors influencing the rate of chemical reations
- concentration of reactant (higher = faster rate)
- Catalyst that are present (increase rate)
- Temperature ( increase temp = increase rate)
- particle size - smaller particles move around more (smaller = increase rate)
water is __________% of the volume of most living cells
60 - 80%
Water has a high heat capacity and a high heat of vaporization, what does high heat capacity and high heat vaporization mean
high heat capacity: absorbs lots of heat before changing temps
high heat vaporization: gives off a lot of heat when evaporates
water is a polar molecule meaning
good job at making things dissolve
excellent solvent for other polar molecules and charged particles, such as ions
Water being a _______ = water being consumed
water being a ________ = water being the end result
reactant
product
Acids are also known as
proton donors (tastes sour)
bases are also know as
proton acceptors (tates bitter)
Carbohydrates are
sugar and starches (1 carbon 2 hydrogen)
Carbohydrates contain the elements
C:H:0
1:2:1
What is the main function of Carbohydrate in the body
fuel/energy
monosaccharides are
simple sugars (glucose)
Disaccharides are
result of combining two monosaccharides are joined by dehydration synthesis
in dehydration synthesis water is a
product and larger carb molecule is built
Polysaccharides are
long chains of monosaccharides linked together by dehydration synthesis
Lipids are insoluble in
eater meaning they are hydrophobic
nonpolar = hydrophobic (lower oxygen content)
Natural fats (triglycerides) are
solid states at room temperature
phospholipids
make up most of the cell membrane
glyceral + 2 fatty acids +phosphate containing group in the “head”
Polar
Likes water
Nonpolar
doesn’t like water
Steroids
ny of a class of natural or synthetic organic compounds characterized by a molecular structure of 17 carbon atoms arranged in four rings
ex: progestorone
Eicosanoids are made from
Arachidonic acid in membranes, which includes prostaglandin that triggers inflammation
Proteins compose _______% of the cell and are ____________________________
10-30%
functional molecules
proteins are made up of
amino acids
Primary structure of Proteins
The sequence of amino acid types that make up a chain
Secondary Structure of Proteins
twists or pleats of the chain due to H-bond
Tertiary Structure of Proteins
Protein folds again (might take a globular shape)
Quaternary Structure of Proteins
Two or more subunits (each with a tertiary structure) combine to make the final protein product.
Fibrous Proteins
Stable strands of water-insolvable material
Globular Proteins
spherical shape (water soluble)
*prone to denaturation
Protein denaturation is
Extreme heat or pH unravels a globular protein leaving it not working
Enzymes are
proteins that catalyze reactions
Enzymes cause
faster reaction rates by decreasing activation energy
Properties of Enzymes
- Specificity for Substrate (reactant)
- unchanged by reaction
- can be regulated by chemical messages (hormones)
- have optimal pH, temperature
- names often end in “-ase”
- work with cofactors
*vitamin B derivatives are examples of cofactors
Nucleic acids are made of…
nucleotides
*each nucleotide: N-base, sugar, P
N-Bases:
- purines: adenine, guanine
- pyrimidines: thymine, cytosine, uracil
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
in nucleus of cell
heritable genetic material coding for protein structure
sugar = deoxyribose
double helix -> H bond links bases
base pairs (A w/ T) (C w/ G)
RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)
located in nucleus + cytoplasm
types of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA
Sugar: ribosome
single-stranded
bases: A, G, C, U
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is made up of
adenine, ribose nucleotide with 3 phosphate groups
Function of ATP
energy currency in cells
Cell Theory
- cells are units of life
- cell activity determines organisms activity
- cells come from other cells
3 types of Lipids
- Phospholipids
- Glycolipids
- Cholesterol
Phospholipid bilayer
Polar (hydrophilic) head -> toward water
nonpolar (hydrophobic) tail -> away water
glycolipid
part sugar, part lipid
stickiness for adhesion; cell ID
Cholesterol
membrane stabilizer
integral membrane proteins (transmembrane)
embedded in the thickness of the membrane (ex: channel proteins)
peripheral proteins
on one face of the membrane (internal or external face)
Proteins can be chemically modified
glycoproteins (part of sugar coat) -> ID, adhesion
phosphate groups added or subtracted
microvilli
projections of cell membrane the increased surface area, allowing for exchange (ex: absorption in intestine [nutrience])
Cilia
projections of 20 M-tubules (microtubules) bundled together (MOVES substances across cell)
flagellum
Long projection (propels a sperm cell)
Tight junctions
linkage of adjacent cells (proteins seal things together to close the gap)
Gap junctions
connection between neighbor cells for communication (channel proteins - connexions)
desmosomes
linkage holding 2 cells together so they resist tearing (glycoproteins, keratin)
The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier, which means it is a
Small, nonpolar (hydrophobic), so solutes (e.g.: O2) pass easily
Diffusion (simple)
Substance moved down the concentration gradient (Brownian motion)
Facilitated diffusion
substance = still moving down the substance gradient with the help of a protein
Osmosis
diffusion of water through the membrane
- tonicity (affect bath has)
- isotonic (normal)
- hypertonic (shrinks cells) -> lots of nonpenetrating solutes
- hypotonic (causes cell swelling -> fewer than normal solutes
Active Transport
uses ATP to push solute against a concentration gradient
Active Transport - (primary active transport protein)
- ex: sodium-potassium pump (Na/K) - pushes 3 Na+ out and pulls 2 K+ in
Active Transport - (secondary active transporters)
moves solutes but requires gradient (from primary pump) to do so
Vesicular Transport
moves solutes in bulk (requires ATP)
Exocytosis
secreation: vesicle fuse within the cell membrane using SNARE proteins (es: gland cell secretes hormones)
Endocytosis (usually by protein-coated vesicle)
receptor-mediated endocytosis for a specific target molecule
Phagocytosis
cell eats particle
Pinocytosis:
cell drinking (drinks fluid)
Membrane potential is a voltage…
separation of opposite charges
Resting membrane potential is
approx -70 mV inside the cell
- Na+/K+ pump loads K+inside
- the exit of K+down its concentration gradient makes the cell more negative
Cytosol (in Cytoplasm)
fluid inside cytoplasm (gel like)
Inclusions
found only in some cells (not all)
- ex: fat droplet in adipocyte
Mitochondria (powerhouse)
makes ATP aerobically
Ribosomes
cite of protein synthesis
Rough ER (endoplasmic Reticulum)
proteins bound for membrane are made and modified (ex: add sugar); sent to Golgi
Smooth ER
sacs of membrane pockets (lipid metabolism
Lysosomes
bubbles with catabolic enzymes (hydrolases)
Hydrolases
catalyse catabolic reactions
Cytoskeleton
network of proteins giving structure to the cell
microfilaments
made of actin
under membrane (supports)
intermediate filaments
made of keratin
resists tearing
microtubules
made of keratin
organelle placement
main ingredient of centrioles, cilia, flagella
Nucleus
Home of the genetic information in the form of DNA
nuclear envelope
double membrane (2 bilayers)
pierced by nuclear pores
nucleoplasm
the fluid inside the nucleus
nucleolus
the spherical body which makes ribosome parts (ribosomes are synthesized)
Chromatin (when loosely packed)
DNA + histone protein
nucleosome - 8 histones + DNA wrapped around them
Chromosomes (when tightly packed)
for cell division
centromeres
Center for chromosomes - attaches to a spindle fiber
telomeres
(end caps) protects DNA ends against loss of genes in the replication process
Interphase
the phase of the cell cycle in which a cell copies its DNA to prepare for mitosis.
Interphase (G0)
describes a mature cell that won’t divide again
Interphase (G1)
growth + normal cell function
Interphase (Synthesis)
(Synthesis of DNA)
replication of all genetic content
helicase unzip the z strands
DNA polymerase builds z new strands (copies)
Interphase (G2)
more growth; final prep for division
Mitosis
divison for growth +repair
Prophase
chromosomes form
nucleus dissolves
centroles migate to poles and extend to microtubules forming the spindle and asters (to membrane)
spindle fibers
-kenetechture fibers
-polar fibers
Where does the spindles form
between poles
Aster forms…
connecting the poles to membrane
Metaphase
Chromosomes align in the middle of the spindle
Anaphase
chromosomes spilt a part
kinetochore pulls chromosomes fibers
polar fibers push poles a part
Telephase
chromosomes stop moving
clevage forms
DNA reverts to chromatin form
spindle and asters dissolve
nuclear envelope, nucleolus reforms
________ codes for __________ codes for ____________
gene DNA
mRNA
Polypeptide (protein)
_________________ transcription _______________ translation _______________
triplet of DNA
code of mRNA
amino acid
Transcription
making of mRNA (pre-mRNA)
RNA polymerase read DNA, builds complementary RNA strands
- pairs A w/ V, C w/ G, T w/ A, G w/ C
happens in the nucleus
Processing of mRNA = editing…
splicosomes cut out unwanted segments of pre-mRNA
in nucleus
-cut out segments coded by introns of “Dark-DNA”
Translation
using mRNA protein at ribsome
-initiation
-elongation
-termination
Initiation
start codon summons and tRNA with methionine animo acid
Elongation
tRNA continues to bring proper amino acids in sequence
-tRNA anticodon pairs with mRNA codon
Termination
mRNA stops codon signals at the end of the line
mRNA might be threaded through a “polyribosome” group
