Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Ana/Phys/Patho I > Unit 1: cell biology, homeostasis, electrolytes > Flashcards

Unit 1: cell biology, homeostasis, electrolytes Flashcards

1
Q

Describe homeostasis

A

the maintenance of nearly constant conditions in the internal environment (ECF)

  • Walter Cannon (1929)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

“what goes in = what comes out” in a steady state; name examples of what “goes in” to a cell and what “comes out” of a cell to maintain homeostasis.

A

in: nutrients
out: energy and waste products

waste products can be: CO2, H+, solid waste, H2O, urea, and heat

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

explain how peripheral circulatory beds maintain homeostasis

A

they deliver only enough to meet tissue needs

increased metabolism > leads to a response in the CV system > increases blood flow to tissues/organs to meet O2 requirements

through arterioles, blood brings nutrients into the capillary bed, where O2 is exchanged to cells, and the venules bring blood back to the heart but also help to remove byproducts from blood

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

explain how the following organs maintain homeostasis:

2 hearts
lungs
GI system
kidneys
liver
peripheral vascular beds

A

L & R heart:
peripheral CV nutrients
O2 circulation to pulm system

lungs: regulate our O2 exchange/blood gas

GI system: replaces nutrients in the blood as they’re being consumed

kidneys: ECF buffering systems (pH)

liver: eliminates wastes/toxins through biliary system

peripheral vascular beds: moves around nutrients

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

What are 4 different ways the body uses a negative feedback loop to correct a drop in MAP

A
  1. increases sympathetic outflow
  2. decreases parasympathetic outflow
  3. increases vasopressin and ADH
  4. decreases ANP

all of these negative feedback systems will counteract the drop in MAP to bring the MAP back up

ANP - atrial natriuretic peptide - a hormone that helps regulate blood pressure by vasodilating vessels in response to atrial stretch due to hypervolemia

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

This feedback system is the most used in the body.

A

Negative Feedback System

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

List the steps for how negative feedback loops help the body maintain homeostasis?

A
  1. change/disturbance of homeostasis occurs
  2. regulatory mechanisms kick in
  3. body reacts to oppose/counteract the change

ex) increased CO2 leads to increased ventilation to decrease CO2

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Explain how a Positive Feedback System responds to changes caused by select stimuli

A

positive feedback AMPLIFIES the changes

can be good or bad

bad = vicious cycles (pathologic positive feedback loops)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

what 2 safety net features prevent physiologic positive feedback loops from progressing into vicious cycles

A
  1. checkpoints
  2. safety valves
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

explain how active labor is a physiologic positive feedback system

A
  1. labor causes the uterus to contract to push the fetus towards the cervix
  2. cervical stretch (change) causes a release of oxytocin into the bloodstream
  3. oxytocin causes the smooth muscle of the uterus to contract (amplified via the stretch of cervix)
  4. loop continues until it hits a “checkpoint” which, in this case, is birth
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

explain how the clotting cascade/platelet plug formation is a physiologic positive feedback loop

A
  1. injury to endothelial wall of a blood vessel occurs (change)
  2. clotting cascade initiates
  3. TXA2 (thromboxane 2; a potent platelet activator) initiates platelet aggregation to plug up vessel wall opening – amplification
  4. continues until reaches checkpoint (controlled bleeding)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

name 6 pathologic positive feedback loops

A

sepsis/necrosis
severe acidosis
peripheral acidotic conditions
atherosclerotic plaque clotting
diabetic renal inflammation/hyperfiltration
severe hemorrhage

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

describe how sepsis/necrosis is a pathologic positive feedback loop

A

cellular death increased > wastes/toxins infiltrate neighboring healthy cells > increased cellular death

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

describe how severe acidosis is a positive feedback loop and what type of positive feedback loop is it?

A

in severe acidosis, pH is lowered, which decreases your respiratory drive, which further exacerbates CO2 retention and therefore continues to exacerbate acidotic state

pathologic positive feedback loop

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

describe how diabetic renal inflammation/hyperfiltration is a pathologic positive feedback loop

A

nephrons die off with aging > which in turn causes healthier nephrons to work harder > healthy nephrons age faster > increased nephron death

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

describe how severe hemorrhage is a pathologic positive feedback loop

A

decreased MAP d/t hypovolemia > decreased coronary blood flow > decreased CO > further decreases your MAP

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

compare and contrast compensated shock versus decompensated shock and how negative and positive feedback loops are integrated

A

in COMPENSATED shock, a negative feedback loop works well; compensatory mechanisms (fluid shifts) will help the body return to homeostasis

in severe hemorrhage (DECOMPENSATED shock), positive feedback leads to death: hypovolemia > decreased MAP > decreased coronary flow; less blood circulating > decreased CO > cellular death

too much blood loss too fast means that the negative feedback compensatory mechanisms will be outweighed by the positive feedback loop

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

describe the relationship between anesthesia and homeostasis

A

anesthetics can alter systems’ physiology (control systems usually in place go “offline” when anesthetics are administered)

also, changes in physiologic systems can alter anesthetic drug responses

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

cells are usually capable of replication; give 2 examples of some cells that have trouble with replication

A

neurons
cardiac cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

the cellular membrane contains a hydrophobic tail and a hydrophilic head; this is called a…

A

phospholipid bilayer

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

these types of compounds can pass easily through the phospholipid bilayer

A

charged compounds

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

the cytoplasm is 70-85% of this material

A

H2O

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

describe what the nucleus of a cell does

A

barrier to keep DNA packed, secured away from pathogens

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

the contents inside of a nucleus include the following:

A

nuclear membrane/nuclear envelope
nucleolus
nucleoplasm
chromatin material (DNA)

outside of a nucleus:
selective pores
endoplasmic reticulum
cytosol/cytoplasm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

the nucleus has very selective pores to let specific material pass into and out of the nuclear membrane; name two of these materials.

A

steroids
RNA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

which structure is an extension of the nuclear wall and produces fats, proteins, and calcium?

A

endoplasmic reticulum

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

differentiate granular (rough) ER vs smooth ER

A

granular (rough) ER: responsible for protein synthesis; transports proteins to be sent to golgi apparatus to be modified

smooth ER: no ribosomes are present; responsible for lipid production

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

describe the process of protein formation

A
  1. DNA transcription
  2. RNA transcribed and spliced
  3. mRNA leaves nucleus to cytosol
  4. ribosomal translation of mRNA into amino acids
  5. amino acids packaged and brought to rough ER (95% of protein synth occurs here) & sent to be modified at the golgi apparatus for post-translational processing
  6. proteins are sent to their specific sites to carry out their specific functions such as cell structure and cell enzymes (Na/K ATPase)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

what is the role of the golgi apparatus

A

packaging/condensing proteins and post-translational processing; proteins are modified and sent out of the cell via secretory vessicles

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

describe what mitochondria do

A

mitochondria are the “powerhouse” of the cell; ATP production factory

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

describe the difference between lysosomes and peroxisomes

A

lysosomes:
use acidic conditions to digest/recycle cell content/proteins

peroxisomes:
use oxidative stress to destroy/process toxins in the cells; can also destroy proteins – mostly degrade toxins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

what is unique about the nucleus in terms of barrier and protection?

A

the nucleus has a double phospholipid bilayer with highly selective pores on the nuclear membrane allowing only a few material to pass through into the nucleoplasm

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

how do water soluble materials get from one side of the cell wall to the other?

A

proteins – strings of amino acid structures; allows passage of charged molecules (such as potassium) through the selectivity filter of the pores in the cell wall

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

where do most proteins get made and what percentage is this?

where do the remaining % of proteins get made?

A

95% proteins made in R.E.R
5% in cytosol (most do not get packaged here)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

why is it important for the chemistry of the water inside of a cell to be balanced?

A

homeostasis; acid/base balance
proton concentration
electrolyte concentration

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

give a few examples of some organelles

A

ex) peroxisomes
ex) mitochondria
ex) lysosomes
ex) golgi apparatus
ex) endoplasmic reticulum

not nucleus; it’s a membrane to protect genetic material

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

what is an enzyme?

A

typically are proteins that catalyze (speed up) a chemical reaction
ends in suffix “-ase”
ex) ATPase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

describe what a sugar molecules role would be on a cellular wall

A
  1. identification (self vs non-self) (immune system)
  2. cell anchoring (to each other); “sticky”/adherence
  3. repelling negatively charged proteins (kidneys do this to prevent filtering out too many proteins)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

filaments/proteins provide what function for a cell?

A

cellular structure; “skeleton”

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

describe how atherosclerotic plaque clotting is a pathologic positive feedback loop

A

plaque inside of a blood vessel > activated enzymes (clotting factors) act on other enzymes within clot itself > these enzymes act on unactivated enzymes in adjacent blood to accumulate more blood clotting > leading to infarct

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

decribe fats (lipids)

A

primarily found in cell wall (phosphlipid bilayer)
non-charged; found in oily substrates

ex)
lipid soluble compounds (cholesterol)
arachidonic acid (used to generate signaling compounds)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

name 2 cell components responsible for motility structure

A

flagella – moves cell itself
cilia – moves other cellular components (ex. mucus)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

describe genetic material in detail

A

most of our genetic material is found in the nucleus (DNA)

humans also inherit mitochondrial DNA from their mother; at least 20 different sets

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

describe secretory granules in detail

A

secretory granules/vesicles, found in specialized cells, empty other cellular material into environment around it

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

relate membrane components to anesthetic drugs

A

vast majority of anesthesia drugs dictate function at cell wall/membrane

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

describe ICF compartment calculations

A

inTRAcellular fluid
2/3 of TBW (in L)

ex) 70 kg male
42L = TBW

(2/3) x 42L = 28L ICF

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

describe ECF compartment calculations

A

extracellular fluid – fluid found outside the cells/in between cells

divides into two categories: plasma and ISF

ECF = 1/3 of TBW
ex) 70 kg male
TBW = 42L

(1/3) x 42L = 14 L ECF

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

describe plasma compartment calculations

A

plasma - found in entire CV system that doesn’t include the volume of any blood cells in the CV system

1/4-1/5 of ECF = plasma

ex) 70kg male, 42L TBW

ECF = 14L
so (1/5) x 14L = 2.8
or (1/4) x 14L = 3.5
therefore: 2.8-3.5 L = plasma

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

describe ISF compartment calculations

A

ISF - interstitial fluid (fluid found outside the CV system, that is not plasma “left over fluid”)

3/4 or 4/5 of ECF

ex) 70kg male, 42L TBW

ECF = 14L
so (4/5) x 14L = 11.2 L
or (3/4) x 14L = 10.5 L
therefore, ISF = 10.5 - 11.2L

  • ISF can fluid shift to make up for volume loss in hemorrhage *
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

explain why a “steady state” is much different than equilibrium; what does “steady state” mean?

A

if the sodium concentration was in a state of equilibrium in the body (inside and outside the cell), our cells could not function properly; instead, they are in a “steady state” meaning sodium’s concentrations are tightly regulated in their respective compartments in and out of a cell

ex) external body temp vs internal body temp – if we were at an equilibrium state with our body temp, our organs and cells also would not be able to function

equilibrium = “equal”

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

differentiate capillary membrane vs cell membrane in terms of cellular body fluid compartments

A

capillary membrane: + separates plasma from ISF (separates CV system from interstitium)
+ fairly permeable; more porous than cell wall
+ tight enough to prevent plasma proteins from leaking out of CV system

cellular membrane/cell wall:
+ separates ICF from ECF
+ does not let charged compounds across membrane unless there is a channel/pump protein to let pass

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

TBW = ?

A

0.6 x body mass in kg

ex) 0.6 x 70kg = 42L TBW

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

2/3 of TBW = ?

A

ICF (intracellular fluid)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

1/3 of TBW = ?

A

ECF (extracellular fluid)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
53
Q

1/4 or 1/5 of ECF = ?

A

plasma

54
Q

3/4 or 4/5 of ECF = ?

A

ISF (interstitial fluid)

55
Q

standard healthy body mass = ?

A

70 kg

56
Q

standard, healthy TBW = ?

A

42 L

57
Q

standard, healthy ICF = ?

A

28 L

58
Q

standard, healthy ECF = ?

A

14 L

59
Q

standard, healthy plasma = ?

A

3 L

60
Q

standard, healthy ISF = ?

A

11L

61
Q

ECF [Na+]

A

140 - 142 mOsm/L H2O

2 x [ECF Na+] = corrected osmolar activity in mOsm/L

ex) 140 (x2) = 280 mOsm/L

62
Q

ICF [Na+]

A

14 mOsm/L H2O

1/10 of ECF [Na+]
ex) 140 = ECF [Na+]
(1/10) x 140 = 14 mOsm/L H2O

63
Q

Na+

A

predominant ECF cation

[Na+] ECF > [Na+] ICF

64
Q

ECF [K+]

A

4 mOsm/L H2O

64
Q

ICF [K+]

A

120 or 140 mOsm/L H2O

30 x ECF [K+] = ICF [K+]
ex) ECF [K+] = 4
30 x 4 = 120 mOsm/L H2O

65
Q

K+

A

important for heart function

[K+] ICF > [K+] ECF

66
Q

Ca2+

A

a signaling electrolyte
(toggles on/off cell functions)
ex) neuromuscular cells

“0” [Ca2+] in ICF
10,000 : 1 – ECF : ICF ratio

67
Q

Mg2+

A

important in chemical reactions; a cofactor for chem rxns required inside cell

ICF > ECF Mg2+

68
Q

Cl-

A

primary anion ECF

ECF > ICF

69
Q

HCO3-

A

managed by kidneys
primary ECF buffer

ECF > ICF

70
Q

HPO4/H2PO4-
(phosphate)

A

additional ICF buffer
phosphates can be attached/detached from proteins to regulate activity levels (de/phosphorylation)
energy storage system (ATP) – energy is released when phosphate groups are “pulled off” adenosine

ICF > ECF

71
Q

Amino acids

A

linked to form proteins
liberated from protein breakdown
amino acids are being used inside cells

ICF > ECF

72
Q

Creatine

A

ATP storage (dephosphorylation)
found in skeletal muscle
short term energy reserve - gets burned through quickly

creatine + phosphate group (phosphocreatine); skeletal muscles can get energy by dephosphorylating phosphocreatine

ICF > ECF

73
Q

Lactate

A

byproduct of metabolism inside of cell

ICF > ECF

74
Q

ATP

A

formed inside of cells; used inside of cells

0 in ECF < ICF

adenosine alone can be found outside of the cell (after the breakdown of ATP) – used to increase blood flow (vasodilation)

75
Q

glucose

A

comes from outside of the cell; turned into energy storage compound or for short term ATP

ECF > ICF (0)

glucose gets turned and burned very quickly inside of the cell, which is why essentially it is “0” intracellulary

76
Q

Protein
(osmolarity chart)

A

made in the cells and used in the cells
+cell wall proteins
+enzyme

ICF > ECF

major ECF protein is albumin > liver makes plasma proteins and is just placed there, hence why it’s in the ECF

77
Q

Urea

A

byproduct of metabolism
equal in [ ] in and out of the cell

78
Q

Total mOsm/L (osmolarity)

A

300 (ECF and ICF)

how many dissolved compounds in a fluid sample

79
Q

corrected osmolar activity (mOsm/L)

A

280-282 mOsm/L

corrected because ions can be close enough (ex - NaCl) but won’t freely dissociate from one another (Na, Cl); therefore, the biological osmolarity is lower than the predicted osmolarity of solution

2x ECF [Na+] = corrected osmolar activity

ex) 2 x 140 = 280

80
Q

total osmotic pressure at 37 degrees C (mmHg)

A

plasma 5443 mmHg
ISF 5423 mmHg
ICF 5423 mmHg

pressure produced from dissolved compounds

81
Q

cell membrane components

A

phospholipids
glycolipids
cholesterol
precursor molecules
proteins
glycoproteins
glycocalyx

82
Q

describe phospholipids

A

primarily in the cell wall

amphipathic (charged, phosphate hydrophilic head; uncharged, hydrophobic, lipid tail – mostly carbons and hydrogens)

hydrophilic head: polar group + phosphate + glycerol > all are charged

hydrophobic tail: fatty acid chains

C-C-C bonds (fatty acid tails)
C=C bonds (glycerol portion)

on phosphate head will sometimes be a polar group (another compound that the cell needs) ex) cholesterol

83
Q

describe cholesterol

A

“planar (flat), rigid” molecule
mostly lipid soluble (except charged -OH group)

the polar group can be changed into something useful for the cell

@ 37 degrees C = cholesterol is RIGID and less fluid

ex) atherosclerosis = tight, rigid arteries d/t cholesterol

@ temps <37 degrees C, cholesterol is less rigid and more fluid (“ice cream”)

used to make sex hormones (estradiol/testosterone)

different compounds of cholesterol will have different effects; cholesterol changes with different enzymes

84
Q

hydrophilic

A

“water loving”
ex) charged ions such as Na+, K+, and Cl-

85
Q

hydrophobic

A

“water-fearing”
ex) uncharged molecules such as oils/fats

86
Q

____ % to ____ % of ICF is water

A

70-85

87
Q

name 6 things that are soluble in water

A

ions (electrolytes)
SOME proteins (partially soluble)
carbohydrates (ex. glucose, bc it’s charged)
SOME gasses: CO2
buffers (HCO3-)
SOME drugs

88
Q

name 5 things that are insoluble in water

A

cholesterol (lipid)
steroid hormones
lipids
drugs (that need a carrier protein to cross membranes)
SOME gasses: nitrous

89
Q

between CO2 and nitrous, which gas is soluble in water?

A

CO2 - soluble
nitrous – insoluble

90
Q

what is a glycolipid

A

glucose attached to lipids

91
Q

glycocalyx

A

glycoproteins + glycolipids
the sum of cell external sugar structures sometimes used for identification

ex) when patient has uncontrolled diabetes, glycocalyx will look abnormal and immune system will recognize this

92
Q

precursor molecules of cell membrane

A

used for synthesizing other structures that the cell needs; usually found in the cell membrane

93
Q

explain how water corrects imbalances through the various cell compartments

A

water has no problem moving in between compartments (capillary wall, cell wall, ICF/ECF) to help correct any changes in total osmolarity

94
Q

what percentage of cholesterol is exogenous vs endogenous?

A

80% in the body
20% taken in outside of the body (diet)

95
Q

if you have a high serum cholesterol problem, why would diet alone not be good enough to lower it?

A

20% of cholesterol in the body is exogenous; therefore, the other 80% the body would have to “figure out how” to lower it itself.

could be Rx-ed STATINS to help lower cholesterol

96
Q

what is Acetyl-CoA

A

a byproduct of glucose + oxygen from ATP synthesis; a sugary compound used to make cholesterol

97
Q

name 6 cholesterol derivatives

A

estradiol
testosterone
progesterone
androstenedione
(all of these are sex hormones/precursor to sex hormones)

cortisol
aldosterone
(both of these are regulated by adrenal glands)

98
Q

why can some cholesterol derivatives have “cross reactivity”

A

all cholesterol derivatives have similar structures

99
Q

what do phosphatidyl- compounds do?

A

play a role in the assembly of surfactant in the lungs (speficically -ethanolamine, -choline, and -inositol)

signal transduction processes inside the cell

100
Q

phosphatidylinositol (PI)

A

used in smooth muscle to regulate contraction

101
Q

phosphatidylcholine (PCh)

A

stored and used for ACh assembly

102
Q

Phosphatidylserine (cytosolic)

A

an immune marker

in healthy cells, phosphatidylserine should be INWARD facing

if immune system sees phosphatidylserine facing OUTWARDS/out of the cell wall, immune system destroys it

phosphatidylserine is regulated by FLIPPASE (it flips the phosphatidylserine’s orientation)

ATP is required for flippase to work

in an UNHEALTHY cell, flippase will not be able to function (no ATP), and phosphatidylserine will accumulate on cell wall, and immune system will kill the cell

103
Q

sphingomyelin

A

a fatty compound used to make myelin in the nervous system

104
Q

arachidonic acid

A

a parent compound; a long fatty acid chain found in the cell wall

105
Q

what are the 3 main arachidonic acid metabolism pathways?

A

PGG2 (prostaglandin pathway)
LTA4 (leukotriene pathway)
EET/20-HETE

106
Q

list out the prostaglandin pathway

A
  1. arachadonic acid uses COX1 and COX2 enzymes to produce PGG2
  2. PGG2 > PGH2 (by COX1/COX2 enzymes)
  3. PGE2/PGI2/PGF2alpha/PGD2/TXA2 (synthesized by specialized enzymes to make their respective prostaglandins; ex – PGH2 + PGE2 synthase = PGE2)
107
Q

differentiate the cylcooxygenase enzymes

A

COX1
+present throughout body

COX2
+more inducible isoform
+turned on in response to pain/something “bad” is happening
+also involved in kidney maintenance as well as cardiac repair s/p infarct/ischemia

108
Q

COX 2 inhibitor examples

A

ASA (although more COX1 specific)
Naproxen
Tylenol
NSAIDs (can be COX1 specific too)

109
Q

explain how giving a COX2 inhibitor to an elderly patient with RA might be harmful

A

RA > chronic pain > sedentary patient might now feel “great” and will try to do things they normally don’t do (run a marathon) and could end up in CV events (cox-2 helps with renal/heart health)

ex) vioxx was a COX-2 inhibitor to relieve RA pain, however, chronic use has shown an increase in CV/stroke events in these patients

110
Q

COX 1 inhibitor example

A

ASA (will inhibit the TXA2 pathway)
NSAIDS (can also be COX2 specific)

111
Q

list the leukotriene pathway

A
  1. arachidonic acid synthesizes leukotrienes by lipoxygenase enzymes (arachidonic acid + 5-LO = 5-HPETE)
  2. 5-HPETE > LTA4
  3. LTA4 turns into LTB4 or LTC4/LTD4/LTE4 leukotrienes
112
Q

what do leukotrienes do

A

important in immune mediated inflammation

113
Q

what is an example of a drug that inhibits leukotrienes

A

singulair (leukotriene antagonist)

+helpful in blocking inflammatory response caused by asthma/allergies

114
Q

list the EET/20-HETE pathway

A
  1. arachidonic acid + cytochrome P450 enzyme = EET/20-HETE
115
Q

explain what EET/20-HETE does

A

involved in acute renal failure disease process as well as inflammatory disease pathways

unstable/difficult to manipulate and are found primarily in the cell wall/don’t live a long time in water

116
Q

explain what TXA2 does

A

TXA2 mediates endothelial injury by squeezing injured vessel to control bleeding (vasospasm)

117
Q

leukotrienes and prostaglandins are different than EET/20-HETE in that they can be found in _____

A

water.
prostaglandins and leukotrienes do not have to hang out in the cell wall because their structure isn’t as similar to arachidonic acid as EET and 20-HETE.

118
Q

cell membrane proteins can function as ______ and _____.

A

enzymes
receptors (ex. GPCRs)

119
Q

differentiate simple diffusion versus facilitated diffusion

A

simple:
+molecules need no help crossing the membrane (except for specific ion channel proteins)
+no binding, confirmational change, or releasing of molecules happening
+movement is dictated by a concentration gradient (usually from [high] to [low])

facilitated:
+movement across [ ] gradient
+binds molecules, a confirmation change occurs, and then releases molecules

both ways of diffusion do NOT require ATP

120
Q

what compounds can cross the membrane via SIMPLE diffusion?

A

dissolved gasses
small, charged compounds (Na+, K+)
H2O

121
Q

give an example of a facilitated diffusion tranporter

A

glut-4

122
Q

explain how electrolytes use chemical and electrical gradients to move across a membrane

A

chemical gradient: moves from areas of high concentration to low concentration

electrical gradient:
ex) if the inside of the cell is low in [Na+] and electrically more negatively charged, the sodium will move across the membrane towards the negatively charged area (since Na+ is positively charged)

123
Q

explain what active transport is

A

in order for compounds to move across the cell membrane, ENERGY is required

124
Q

how is primary active transport different than secondary active transport?

A

primary active transport directly uses ATP
ex) Na+/K+/ATPase pump directly uses ATP to pump 3 sodium OUT of the cell & 2 K+ INTO the cell (both ions are against their own concentration gradient)

secondary active transport pulls the energy from an electrochemical gradient (i.e. Na+ pump) to bring another molecule in/out of the cell
ex) NCX (sodium/calcium exchanger)

125
Q

give examples of which pumps are PRIMARY active transporters

A

Na+/K+/ATPase
Ca2+ pump
Proton pump

126
Q

give examples of which pumps are SECONDARY active transporters

A

NCX
SGLT

127
Q

give an example of a facilitated diffusion pump

A

GLUT-4
& GLUT-1

128
Q

give examples of simple diffusion pumps

A

ion specific (Na+, Cl-)
aquaporins

129
Q

osmolarity vs osmolality

A

osmolarity: quantity/1L of SOLUTION
+easier to quantify
+solution = solutes + whatever else is in your bloodstream

osmolality: quantity/1 kg of H2O
+impractical – you can’t draw blood and JUST get “H2O” in your sample

130
Q

osmotic pressure calculation

A

= total osmolarity x 19.3

131
Q

blood volume calculation

A

plasma vol x (1-HCT)

132
Q

another way to calculate corrected osmolarity

A

total osmolarity x dissociation constant

ex) 300 x (0.93)

Ana/Phys/Patho I (6 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions