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Bio1 > UNIT 1 > Flashcards

UNIT 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is life?

A

It’s an organized unit capable of metabolism, reproduction and evolution.

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2
Q

What is metabolism?

A

It’s the chemical reactions in the body’s cells that change food into energy.

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3
Q

What is reproduction?

A

Its a process and which an individual cell/ organism make new cells/ organisms

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4
Q

What is evolution?

A

It is how living things change over time and how new species develop.

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5
Q

Cell metabolism is….?

A

its total chemical activity, and consists of thousands of individual chemical reactions.

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6
Q

These reactions in the cell/organisms must be ….?

A

…. coordinated for a cell/organism to function.

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7
Q

What provides control and coordination in the cell?

A

Genes

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8
Q

What is ATP?

A

It provides energy to the cell.

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9
Q

What is anabolism?

A

It grows and builds.

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10
Q

What is catabolism?

A

It breaks down.

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11
Q

What produces less heat (anabolism or catabolism)?

A

Anabolism since building up takes less energy then breaking down.

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12
Q

What is the cycle of the cell (broad)?

A

Larger molecules go through catabolism which produces small molecules which as well go through anabolism and it restarts.

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13
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

Its the maintenance of a stable internal condition.

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14
Q

The internal environment of a cell/organism must remain …what?

A

….within a given range of physical and chemical conditions for that cell/organism to remain healthy.

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15
Q

What is reproduction?

A

Its a process by which an individual cell/organism makes a new individual cell/organism

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16
Q

What is a major characteristic of life (with variation)?

A

Reproduction

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17
Q

What leads to evolution?

A

The combination of reproduction and errors in the duplication of the genetic material.

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18
Q

Variations in the physical environnement helps with what?

A

Drive the diversification of life

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19
Q

What is an adaptation?

A

Characteristic that allows a organism to adapt to its environnement.

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20
Q

What is sexual reproduction?

A

The combining of genetic information from two cells

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21
Q

How does sex increase the rate of evolution?

A
  • produce genetically variable offsprings

- offspring made through sexual reproduction have an advantage over asexual re production

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22
Q

Darwin called the differential survival and reproductive success of individuals what?

A

natural selection

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23
Q

life arose from what?

A

non-life

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24
Q

what led to the appearance of life about 4 billion years ago?

A

Chemical evolution

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25
Q

Random inorganic chemical interactions eventually produced what?

A

molecules that were able to make copies of themselves

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26
Q

Around 3.8 billion years ago certain molecules became enclosed in “compartments”, or cells. What are they called?

A

prokaryotic cells(first ones)

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27
Q

Cells can do what?

A

capture energy, replicate themselves and evolve.

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28
Q 
For how long all organisms were unicellular, confined to the oceans, and
protected from (ultraviolet) radiation.?
UV
A

For 2 billion years

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29
Q

some prokaryotic cells acquired the ability to photosynthesize. How long ago?

A

about 2.5 billion years ago

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30
Q

Ozone has the property of…..

A

preventing excess UV light from the sun from reaching Earth.

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31
Q

What is the first unifying theory of biology?

A

cell theory

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32
Q

What does the cell theory state?

A

▪Cells are the fundamental units of life.
▪All organisms are composed of cells.
▪All cells come from preexisting cells.

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33
Q

What is implied in the cell theory?

A

▪The functions of all cells are similar.
▪The origin of life was the origin of cells.
▪Life is continuous.

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34
Q

How small is a cell?

A

<200um

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35
Q

Why are cells so small?

A

because a high surface-area-to-volume ratio is essential.

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36
Q

The surface area of a cell determines what?

A

the number of substances that can pass the cell boundary per unit time.

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37
Q

The volume determines what?

A

the amount of chemical activity in the cell per unit time.

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38
Q

As a cell volume increase what else increases?

A

chemical activity along with the need for resources and waste removal

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39
Q

Large organisms consist of what? ( when the surface area becomes limited)

A

many small cells

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40
Q

The two types of cells?

A

prokaryotic and eukaryotic

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41
Q

Prokaryotic cell is a characteristic of what domains?

A

Bacteria and Archaea.

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42
Q

An organism in the bacteria and archaea domain is exclusively what?

A

unicellular.

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43
Q

Prokaryotic cell lacks what?

A

internal compartments

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44
Q

Prokaryotic cell have a nucleus that is not ..? ( called nucleoid region)

A

membrane- bound

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45
Q

Eukaryotic cell is characteristic to four kingdoms of domains what?

A

Protists, Plants, Fungi, Animals.

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46
Q

Organism in the eukarya domains may be …?(cells)

A

unicellular -or- multicellular

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47
Q

Eukaryotic cell have many…? (In their cells)

A

many membrane- bound compartments (including a double- membrane-bound nucleus containing DNA).

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48
Q

All prokaryotic cells have …? ( the different things within their cell)

A

▪plasma membrane
▪nucleoid region with one circular strand of DNA
▪cytoplasm containing dissolved enzymes, water,
and small molecules
▪70S (small) ribosomes for making proteins

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49
Q

Most prokaryotes have …?

A

▪cell wall (outside the plasma membrane) made

of peptidoglycan

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50
Q

Some prokaryotes have…?

A

▪outer membrane (outside the cell wall)
▪capsule (outside cell wall or outer membrane)

▪photosynthetic pigments (i.e., cyanobacteria)

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51
Q

What cell has some rotating flagella that cause movement of the cell?

A

prokaryotes

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52
Q

What cell has pili (hairlike structure projecting from the surface)?

A

prokaryotes

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53
Q

What can help bacteria adhere to one another to other cells or to environmental surfaces?

A

pili

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54
Q

Like prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have…?

A

a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes

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55
Q

Tho eukaryotic cells are …? (Size)And contain…?(in their cell)

A

▪eukaryotic cells are larger (up to 10x),
and
▪contain many membrane-enclosed
compartments called organelles.

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56
Q

What is the largest organelle in a eukaryotic cell?

A

nucleus usually

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57
Q

the nucleus surrounded by…?

A

the nuclear envelope (double membrane bound: 1 outer, 1 inner)

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58
Q

Within the nucleus, the nucleolus is where what is made?

A

ribosomes

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59
Q

Ribosome are sites to what synthesis?

A

protein synthesis

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60
Q

Eukaryotic ribosome are…? (Large or small)

A

large

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61
Q

ribosome are molecules made of what? (2 things)

A

RNA & proteins.

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62
Q

ribosome are found doing and/or attached to what?

A

free-floating -or- attached to RER.

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63
Q

What controls the movement of the molecules between the nucleus and cytoplasm?

A

Nuclear pores

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64
Q

What is in the nucleus and associated with protein forms chromatin?

A

DNA

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65
Q

What is diffuse within the nucleus but condenses to form visible chromosomes?

A

Chromatin

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66
Q

What system includes the plasma membrane, nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and lysosomes?

A

endomembrane system

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67
Q

What shuttle substances between the various components?

A

Tiny, membrane-bound vesicles

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68
Q

What is the endoplasmic reticulum? (ER)

A

Network of membranes in the cytoplasm; large surface area.

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69
Q

What is the rough endoplasmic reticulum?(RER)

A

The part of endoplasmic reticulum that has 80S (large) ribosomes that synthesize proteins. It also modifies them, folds them, and transports them to other regions.

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70
Q

What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum? (SER)

A

The part of endoplasmic reticulum that lacks ribosomes and is associated mostly with synthesis of lipids, and some detoxification.

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71
Q

What is the Golgi apparatus? And his “job”?

A

its composed of flattened sacs (cisternae) and small vesicles.
▪Receives proteins from the RER—can further modify them.
▪Packages and sorts proteins.
▪In plant cells, polysaccharides for the making of cell walls are synthesized here.

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72
Q

The cis region of the Golgi do what?

A

receives vesicles from the ER.

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73
Q

The trans region of the Golgi do what?

A

releases vesicles that are moved to the plasma membrane or other organelles.

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74
Q

What is lysosomes? (what do they contain?)

A

They contain digestive enzymes that hydrolyze macromolecules into monomers.

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75
Q

The primary lysosomes are made in …?

A

in the Golgi apparatus.

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76
Q

When is a phagosome formed?

A

when food molecules enter the cell by phagocytosis

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77
Q

How is secondary lysosomes formed?

A

Phagosomes fuse with primary lysosomes

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78
Q

What enzyme hydrolyze the food molecules?

A

Hydrolytic enzymes

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79
Q

Waste in the cell are ejected by….?

A

exocytosis

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80
Q

What are mitochondria organelle? where is it found as well?

A

They are double-membrane-bound organelles found in animals, plants, fungi, and some protists.

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81
Q

What do mitochondria contain?

A

one circular strand of DNA, 70S (i.e., small) ribosomes, and some enzymes.

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82
Q

What is the mitochondria job?

A

energy contained in food molecules is transformed into energy-rich ATP molecules during a metabolism called cellular respiration.

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83
Q

What is chloroplast?( where does it occur? and what is in this cell?)

A

it occur in plants and in photosynthetic protists (i.e., algae).

  • These are double-membrane-bound organelles.
  • They contain one circular strand of DNA, 70S (i.e., small) ribosomes, and some enzymes.
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84
Q

Chlorophyll and other pigments use light to make…?

A

energy to make ATP molecules and sugars during a metabolism

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85
Q

What is this metabolism called?

A

photosynthesis.

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86
Q

What are the cells surviving with smaller prokaryotic cells within them?

A

early eukaryotic cells

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87
Q

Atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organisms, population, communities and biosphere what can this be visualized as?

A

hierarchy of units in biology

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88
Q

All organism on earth today descended from what?

A

an original unicellular organism

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89
Q

What tree biologists assembled using data from a variety of source?

A

Tree of Life

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90
Q

What are the 3 major domains in the tree of life?

A

▪Bacteria and Archaea (prokaryotes)

▪Eukarya (eukaryotes).

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91
Q

Each species are identified by scientific names a binominal what is the first and second name called? (Scientific names)

A

▪ The first name (the genus name) refers to a group of species that share a recent common ancestor.
▪The second name (the specific epithet) identifies a single species within the genus.

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92
Q

What is the scientific name for modern humans?

A

Homo sapiens

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93
Q

What is the taxonomic classification? (The list )

A 
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
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94
Q

What are the main parts to the scientific method?

A
  • Making observations
  • Asking questions
  • Forming hypotheses (i.e., tentative answers to the questions)
  • Making predictions based on these hypotheses (ex., if…, then…)
  • Testing the predictions by conducting experiments (i.e., materials and methods)
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95
Q

When can something be called a theory?

A

If the results of continued testing support the hypothesis

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96
Q

What are controlled experiments?

A

They are the most popular experiments executed by scientists.

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97
Q

What do the scientists manipulate?

A

a single variable that is predicted to cause differences between groups.

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98
Q

The variable is manipulated in an… ? And the results are compared with data from an …?

A

“experimental” group

un-manipulated “control” group.

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99
Q

What is the independent variable?

A

the variable being manipulated.(What do I change?)

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100
Q

What is the dependent variable?

A

the response that is measured. (What do I observe?)

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101
Q

What is the controlled variable?

A

one or more variables that are held constant in both the experimental and control groups.

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102
Q

When are the statistical test applied?

A

to the data to determine the probability of getting a particular result.

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103
Q

statistical test eliminate what?

A

the possibility that results are due to random variation.

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104
Q

The presence of what matter was critical in making conditions suitable for life?

A

water

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105
Q

All matter is composed of ….?

A

atoms

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106
Q

Each atom consists of ….?

A

a proton and one electron at least

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107
Q

Each element consists of ..?

A

only one type of atoms

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108
Q

All atoms have the same number of protons but can differ in neutrons what are those called?

A

isotopes

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109
Q

The place a atom travel..?

A

an orbital

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110
Q

A chemical bond is ..?

A

its an attractive force that links two atoms together.

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111
Q

A covalent bond is …?

A

formed by sharing of a pair of electrons between two atoms.

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112
Q

Convolent bonds are the …?

A

strongest bonds.

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113
Q

What is called the attractive force that an atom exerts on electrons?

A

electronegativity

114
Q

The unequal sharing of electrons cause a partial negative and partial positive resulting in a ….?

A

polar covalent bond

115
Q

Polar molecules are …?

A

Molecules that have polar covalent bonds

116
Q

Hydrogen bonds involve hydrogen and …? (4 atoms)

A

oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine or chlorine.

117
Q

Hydrogen bond are the attraction between…?

A

The - portion of one molecule to the + portion of another molecule

118
Q

Hydrogen bonds do not share what?

A

electrons

119
Q

Polar molecules tend to be…?

A

hydrophilic.

120
Q

Substance that are ionic or polar often…?

A

dissolve in water due to hydrogen bonds.

121
Q

Non polar are called..?

A

hydrophobic

122
Q

Non polar molecules tend to…?

A

group with other nonpolar molecules.

123
Q

Non polar molécules are also attracted to each other what are the weak attractions formed called?

A

van der Waals forces

124
Q

What is the weakest bond?

A

van der Waals forces

125
Q

Due to what does the water have unusual properties?

A

its shape, polarity, and ability to form hydrogen bonds

126
Q

Water has a … when frozen?

A

crystalline structure

127
Q

Water has a ….. which makes water molecules resist from coming appart from one another?

A

cohesive strength

128
Q

The cohesive strength allows what?

A

the transport of water from the roots to the tops of trees

129
Q

Because of the cohesive strength present in the water has a ….?

A

high surface tension

130
Q

Living organism are …% water?

A

70

131
Q

Substance that dissolve in water release an hydrogen ions is called?

A

acids

132
Q

Substance that dissolve in water release an hydroxide ions is called?

A

bases

133
Q

What group functions as an acid?

A

carboxyl group

134
Q

What group functions as a weak base ?

A

amino group

135
Q

What acts as both a weak acid and a weak base?

A

water

136
Q

What is ph ?

A

its the measure of hydrogen ion concentration.( between 0-2 its 100X more basic than..)

137
Q

What are 2 properties that influence the behaviour of molecules?

A

▪ recognizable functional groups

▪ the existence of isomers of molecules.

138
Q

Functional group gives what?

A

specific properties to molecules.

139
Q

What are the properties of the hydroxyl group?

A

They are polar molecules with OH at the end. They enable linkage to other molecule by dehydration.

140
Q

What are the properties of the aldehyde group?

A

They have H-C=O bond at their end. They are important in building molecules and in energy releasing reactions.

141
Q

What are the properties of the keto group?

A

They have a C=O bond in the middle. Its important in carbohydrates and in energy reactions.

142
Q

What are the properties of the carboxyl group?

A

They make molecules more acidic. They have an OH-C=O bond at their end.

143
Q

What are the properties of the amino group?

A

They make molecules more basic. They have an H-N-H at their end.

144
Q

What are the properties of the phosphate group?

A 
It makes a highly energetic covalent bond. Its negatively charged. 
                     O
                      II
There is a O-P-O 
                      I
                     O
at their end.
145
Q

What are the properties of the sulfhydryl group?

A

There is a S-H bond at their end. They make a disulfide bond.

146
Q

What are isomers?

A

its molecules that have the same chemical formula, but a different structural formula

147
Q

What are structural isomers?

A

differ in terms of how atoms are joined together.

148
Q

What are optical isomers?

A

are essentially structural isomers that are also mirror images of each other.

149
Q

What are living things composed of?

A

the same elements as the inanimate universe.

150
Q

What are the 2 theories to the origin of life?

A

▪ Molecules of life came from extraterrestrial sources

▪ Molecules of life resulted from chemical evolution on Earth

151
Q

What are the 4 major types of macromolecules?

A

▪ Proteins
▪ Carbohydrates
▪ Lipids
▪Nucleic acids

152
Q

Are they present in all organisms in roughly the same proportions?

A

yes

153
Q

What is the advantage of biochemical unity?

A

is that organisms acquire needed biochemicals by eating other organisms.

154
Q

What are macromolecules?

A

giant polymers.

155
Q

How are polymers are formed?

A

by covalent linkages of smaller units called monomers.

156
Q

How are macromolecules made?

A

from smaller monomers by means of a condensation (or dehydration) reaction in which an OH from one monomer is linked to an H from another monomer.

157
Q

What is called the reverse reaction in which the polymers are broken back into monomers?

A

hydrolysis reaction.

158
Q

What are proteins?

A

they are polymers of amino acids. They are molecules with diverse structures and functions.
• Each different type of protein has a characteristic amino acid composition and order.
• Proteins range in size from a few amino acids to thousands of them.
• Folding is crucial to the function of a protein and is influenced largely by the sequence of amino acids.

159
Q

An amino acids has 4 groups attached to the central carbon atom, what are they?

A
  • Amino group
  • carboxyl group
  • side chain
  • hydrogen atom
160
Q

There is 20 R group what are they?

A

▪5 have charged hydrophilic side chains.
▪5 have uncharged hydrophilic (polar) side
chains.
▪7 have hydrophobic (nonpolar) side chains.
▪ Cysteine has a terminal disulfide (—SH—).
▪ Glycine has a hydrogen atom as the R group.
▪ Proline has a modified amino group that forms a covalent bond with the R group, forming a ring.

161
Q

How are proteins synthesized?

A

by condensation reactions between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another.

162
Q

What bond is formed by the grouping of amino group and the carboxyl group?

A

This forms a peptide linkage.

163
Q

What is another name for the proteins?

A

polypeptides

164
Q

They are 4 levels to a protein structure what are they called?

A

primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary

165
Q

What is the primary structure of a protein?

A

The precise sequence (i.e., order) of amino acids

166
Q

The peptide backbone consists of….?

A

of repeating units of atoms

167
Q

What is the secondary structure of a protein?

A

it consists of regular, repeated patterns in different regions in the polypeptide chain.

168
Q

The shape of the protein is influenced by what?

A

hydrogen bonds

169
Q

What are the 2 common secondary structure?

A

▪ the a-helix, and;

▪ the b-pleated sheet.

170
Q

What is the a-helix?

A

• Is a right-handed coil.

171
Q

What is the b-pleated sheets?

A

Form from peptide regions of a single strand that lie

parallel to each other.

172
Q

What is the tertiary structure?

A

Bending and folding results in a macromolecule with specific three-dimensional shape.

173
Q

What is the primary determinant of the tertiary structure? (bonds & forces that can be seen)

A 
▪Disulfide bonds 
▪Aggregation of hydrophobic side chains 
▪van der Waals forces
▪ Ionic bonds
▪Hydrogen bonds
174
Q

What is the quaternary structure?

A

from the ways in which multiple (2 or more) polypeptide subunits bind together and interact.
• This level of structure adds to the three-dimensional shape of the finished protein.

175
Q

What is crucial to the functioning of protein?

A

Shape

176
Q

What can change the shape of a protein?

A

temperature, pH, salt concentrations, and oxidation or reduction conditions

177
Q

What is it called when a protein loses its 3-D shape ?

A

denaturation

178
Q

What are chaperonins?

A

its a specialized proteins that help keep other proteins from interacting inappropriately with one another.

179
Q

What do chaperonins help to do?

A

• Some chaperonins help folding; some prevent folding until the appropriate time.

180
Q

What are carbohydrates?(how they are made?)

A

carbon molecules with hydrogen groups and hydroxyl groups

181
Q

What is the job of carbohydrates?

A
  • They act as energy storage and transport molecules.

* They also serve as “carbon skeletons” for other molecules.

182
Q

What are the 4 major categories of carbohydrates?

A

▪ Monosaccharides are the monomers of carbohydrates; simple sugars.
▪ Disaccharides, which consist of two monosaccharides linked by one covalent bond.
▪ Oligosaccharides, which consist of between 3 and 20 monosaccharides
▪ Polysaccharides, which are composed of hundreds to hundreds of thousands of monosaccharides—starch, glycogen, cellulose

183
Q

What is the general formula of carbohydrate monomer?

A

Cn(H2O)n

184
Q

What is the ratio of the atoms in the general formula of carbohydrate monomer?

A

ratio of 1 carbon to 2 hydrogens to 1 oxygen.

185
Q

How is called the condensation reaction?

A

polymerization

186
Q

What are the different monosaccharides?

A

▪ Triose (3-carbon sugars) include glyceraldehyde.
▪ Tetrose (4-carbon sugars) include erythrose.
▪Pentoses (5-carbon sugars) include ribose, deoxyribose.
▪ Hexoses (6-carbon sugars) include the structural isomers glucose, fructose, mannose, and galactose.

187
Q

What is the preferred energy source of all cells?

A

glucose

188
Q

Glucose exists in a…? (shape)

A

straight chain or ring form.

189
Q

Monosaccharides bond together in the condensation reaction called…? (name of the bond)

A

glycosidic linkages

190
Q

What are disaccharides? (their linkages)

A

they have just one glycosidic linkage: sucrose, lactose, maltose, cellobiose.

191
Q

What are ogliosaccharide?

A

contain more than two monosaccharides. Usually 3-20.

192
Q

What are polysaccharides? And some examples of them?

A

giant polymers of monosaccharides connected by glycosidic linkages.
▪ Starch: storage of glucose in plants
▪Glycogen: storage of glucose in animals
▪ Cellulose (i.e., fiber): very stable, good for structural components in plants.

193
Q

What is not digestible to animals and humans?

A

fiber is not digestible(β-links)

194
Q

How can carbohydrates be modified?

A

by the addition of functional groups:
▪ Phosphate added to one or more hydroxyl (—OH) sites creates a sugar phosphate, such as fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.
▪ Amino groups can be substituted for —OH groups, making amino sugars, such as glucosamine and galactosamine.

195
Q

Are lipids soluble in water?

A

no

196
Q

The insolubility of lipids are from what?

A

from the many nonpolar

covalent bonds of hydrogen and carbon in lipids

197
Q

What is the only group of macromolecules that does not consist of polymers?

A

Lipids

198
Q

What are lipids made of?

A

smaller “fatty” molecules such as fatty acids and glycerol

199
Q

What do fat and oil do?

A

store energy.

200
Q

Fats and oil are composed of?

A

composed of three fatty acid molecules and one glycerol molecule.(triglycerides,)

201
Q

What is glycerol?

A

its a three-carbon molecule with three hydroxyl (—OH) groups, one for each carbon.

202
Q

What are fatty acids?

A

They are long chains of hydrocarbons with a carboxyl group (—COOH) at one end.

203
Q

What is the bond made between glycerol and fatty acids molecules?

A

ester linkages

204
Q

What are saturated fatty acids?

A

they have only single carbon-to-carbon bonds (i.e., no double bonds) and are said to be saturated with hydrogens.

205
Q

How do saturated fatty acids look at room temperature?

A

rigid and straight, and solid

206
Q

What are unsaturated fatty acids?

A

they have at least one double-bonded carbon in one of the chains —the chain is not completely saturated with hydrogen atoms.

207
Q

What does it mean for something to be monounsaturated?

A

one double bond

208
Q

What does it mean for something to be polyunsaturated?

A

more than one double bond

209
Q

The double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids cause what?

A

kinks” that prevent easy packing.

210
Q

Since double bonds prevent easy packing how are unsaturated fatty acids at room temperature?

A

liquid

211
Q

What are phospholipids? (What do they have?)

A

they have two hydrophobic fatty acid tails and one hydrophilic phosphate group attached to the glycerol.

212
Q

How does phospholipids orient themselves in water?

A

the phosphate group faces water and the tail faces away.

213
Q

phospholipids have a hydrophobic and hydrophilic ends what can it be called ?

A

amphipathic

214
Q

In a aqueous environment these lipids form what?

A

bilayers,

215
Q

What are Carotenoids & Chlorophylls ?

A

These are light-absorbing pigments found mostly in plants.

216
Q

The b-carotene is a plant pigment used to what?

A

to trap light in photosynthesis.

217
Q

In animals, The b-carotene can be what?

A

broken into two molecules of vitamin A.

218
Q

What are steroids?

A

they are signaling molecules/hormones. they are organic compounds with a series of fused rings.

219
Q

What steroid is a common part of animal cell membranes?

A

steroid cholesterol

220
Q

Cholesterol is an initial substrate for what?

A

synthesis of the hormones testosterone and estrogen.

221
Q

What are vitamins?

A

small organic molecules essential to health, not synthesized by the body, so must be acquired from diet.

222
Q

Some lipids can be what?

A

vitamins

223
Q

What are the lipid-soluble vitamins? (Name them)

A

A, D, E, and K.

224
Q

What vitamins are water-soluble?

A

All others (B’s and C)

225
Q

What are waxes? (cellular wise)

A

they are highly nonpolar molecules consisting of saturated long fatty acids bonded to long fatty alcohols via an ester linkage.

226
Q

What differs a fatty alcohol from a fatty acid?

A

the last carbon, which has an —OH group instead of a —COOH group.

227
Q

Waxy coating repels and prevent what?

A

water/water loss from structures

228
Q

What are the most known nucleic acids?

A

DNA— (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA—(ribonucleic acid)

229
Q

What are called the monomers of nucleic acids?

A

nucleotides.

230
Q

Nucleotides consist of what? (Their components)

A

a pentose sugar, a phosphate

group, and a nitrogen-containing base.

231
Q

What are the sugars are in the RNA and DNA?

A

ribose and deoxyribose

232
Q

The backbone of RNA and DNA consists of …?

A

the sugars and phosphate groups,

233
Q

In the backbone of RNA and DNA by what bond the sugar an phosphate group linked?

A

phosphodiester linkages

234
Q

What are the DNA bases and their pairing?

A

adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T)///A—T, C—G

235
Q

What is DNA primary structure?

A

The sequence of bases is DNA

236
Q

Purines pair with pyramidines by H- bond what are the purines and pyramidines in the DNA sequence?

A

Purines: A and G
pyrimidines: C and T

237
Q

Do the strands of DNA run on the same direction or opposite?

A

opposite (anti- parallel).

238
Q

What is the DNA secondary structure?

A

The two strands of a DNA molecule form a double helix.

239
Q

What are the bases for RNA and their pairing?

A

adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U)/// A—U, C—G

240
Q

Is RNA single- stranded or double-stranded?

A

single- stranded

241
Q

Some RNA complementary base pairing occurs where?

A

within the structure of some types of RNA.

242
Q

What is the replicator first hypothesis?

A

▪ Nucleotides formed polymers; some had the right
shape to be catalytic and reproduce themselves.

▪ DNA does not have this property;

243
Q

What are ribozymes?

A

they are folded RNA molecules that can catalyze reactions on their own nucleotides as well as other molecules.

244
Q

What is DNA?

A

is an information molecule. The information is stored in the order of the four different bases.

245
Q

The order of the four different bases is transferred to ….. which is then used to direct ……. in ….?

A

RNA molecules///the order of the amino acids//proteins.

246
Q

Is it true that Closely related living species have DNA base sequences that are more similar than distantly related species?

A

its true

247
Q

What is humans closest living relative and to how much %?

A

chimpanzees//98%

248
Q

Mitochondria & chloroplasts contains what? (In common)

A

contain their own DNA and their own 70S ribosomes, and can, therefore, make some of their own proteins

249
Q

What does the endosymbiosis theory state?

A

Mitochondria & chloroplasts originated when large prokaryotes engulfed but did not digest, smaller ones (what are now known as mitochondria & chloroplasts).

250
Q

The mutual benefit of Mitochondria & chloroplasts permitted what?

A

this symbiotic relationship to evolve into eukaryotic organelles of today.

251
Q

What are peroxisomes?

A

they are single-membrane-bound organelles involved in oxidation of fatty acids, as well as detoxification of peroxides.

252
Q

Plant cells & alga cell have vacuole. What is the vacuole?

A

single-membrane-bound compartment of water, dissolved substances, and digestive enzymes.

253
Q

What does the cytoskeleton provides?

A

provides shape, strength, and movement.

254
Q

There are three types of protein fibre what are they?

A

Microfilaments,Intermediate filaments and Microtubules

255
Q

How are microfilament formed and what does it do?

A

they are formed of the protein actin. Microfilaments strengthen cellular structures & provide movement in animal cytokinesis, in cytoplasmic streaming, and in pseudopod extension.

256
Q

How are Intermediate filaments formed and what does it do?

A

they are formed of keratin proteins.

▪add strength to cell attachments in multicellular organisms.

257
Q

How are Microtubules formed and what does it do?

A

they Microtubules are formed of the protein tubulin.
▪can lengthen & shorten to help move organelles within the cell; push & pull
chromosomes during cell division.

258
Q

What are made of microtubules in a 9+2 pattern?

A

Cilia & eukaryotic flagella

259
Q

Cilia and eukaryotic flagella are anchored to what?

A

a basal body

260
Q

What makes the basal body?

A

microtubules in a “9 triplets” pattern

261
Q

What is the cilia?

A

short, usually many present, move with a stiff power stroke.

262
Q

What is the flagella?

A

longer, usually one or two present, movement is snake-like.

263
Q

Where can we find cilia?

A
  • cilia lining the trachea
  • cilia of fallopian tubes
  • in movements of protists
264
Q

Where can we find the flagella?

A
  • flagellum of sperm cells

- in movements of protists

265
Q

What are centrioles?

A

made up of “9 triplets” of microtubules (structurally identical to basal bodies)

266
Q

What are centrioles involved in?

A

they are involved in the formation of the mitotic spindle—to which chromosomes attach during cell division

267
Q

What is the extracellular matrix?

A

its anything external to the plasma membrane.

268
Q

What does the material in the matrix provide?

A

protection, support, and attachment for cells

in multicellular organisms.

269
Q

In plants and algae the extracellular matrix consists of?

A

cell wall made of cellulose (i.e., fiber).

270
Q

What is the name of the cell wall of fungi?

A

chitin

271
Q

Cell walls provide what?

A

structure, and a means for withstanding high osmotic pressure in aqueous environments.

272
Q

In animals (humans included) the extracellular matrix consists of?

A

mainly of the protein collagen, and some different glycoproteins.

273
Q

Is there a cell wall in animal cells?

A

no

274
Q

What does biological membranes consists of?

A

lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates.

275
Q

What describes a phospholipid bilayer in which membrane proteins move laterally within the membrane?

A

fluid mosaic model

276
Q

What do peripheral protein attach to ?

A

the surface of the phospholipid bilayer by ionic bonds

277
Q

What protein are inserted into the phospholipid bilayer?

A

Integral membrane proteins

278
Q

What is called an intergral protein that crosse the bilayer completely ?

A

transmembrane protein.

279
Q

Why can 2 surfaces of a membrane have different properties?

A

different phospholipid compositions,

exposed domains of integral membrane proteins, and peripheral membrane proteins.

280
Q

Carbohydrates attached to proteins or phospholipids project from the external surface of the plasma membrane functions as what?

A

recognition signals between cells.

Bio1 (3 decks)

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