Unit 1 Flashcards
Two fundamental classes of behavior
Respondent
Operant
Respondent
involuntary behavior (anxiety, sexual response) that is automatically elicited by certain behavior. A stimulus elicits a response.
Operant
voluntary behavior (walking, talking) that is controlled by its consequences in the environment.
Learning occurs as a result of pairing previously neutral (conditioned) stimulus with an unconditioned (involuntary) stimulus so that the conditioned stimulus eventually elicits the response normally elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.
RESPONDENT OR CLASSICAL CONDITIONING (Pavlov)
Antecedent events or stimuli precede behaviors, which, in turn, are followed by consequences. Consequences that increase the occurrence of the behavior are referred to as reinforcing consequences; consequences that decrease the occurrence of the behavior are referred to as punishing consequences. Reinforcement aims to increase behavior frequency, whereas punishment aims to decrease it.
OPERANT CONDITIONING (B. F. Skinner):
Operant Techniques:
Positive reinforcement: Increases probability that behavior will occur—praising, giving tokens, or otherwise rewarding positive behavior.
Negative reinforcement: Behavior increases because a negative (aversive) stimulus is removed (i.e., remove shock).
Positive punishment: Presentation of undesirable stimulus following a behavior for the purpose of decreasing or eliminating that behavior (i.e., hitting, shocking).
Negative punishment: Removal of a desirable stimulus following a behavior for the purpose of decreasing or eliminating that behavior (i.e., removing something positive, such as a token or dessert).
Specific Behavioral Terms:
Positive reinforcement: Increases probability that behavior will occur—praising, giving tokens, or otherwise rewarding positive behavior.
Negative reinforcement: Behavior increases because a negative (aversive) stimulus is removed (i.e., remove shock).
Positive punishment: Presentation of undesirable stimulus following a behavior for the purpose of decreasing or eliminating that behavior (i.e., hitting, shocking).
Negative punishment: Removal of a desirable stimulus following a behavior for the purpose of decreasing or eliminating that behavior (i.e., removing something positive, such as a token or dessert).
Specific Behavioral Terms:
Aversion therapy: Any treatment aimed at reducing the attractiveness of a stimulus or a behavior by repeated pairing of it with an aversive stimulus. An example of this is treating alcoholism with Antabuse.
Biofeedback: Behavior training program that teaches a person how to control certain functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, temperature, and muscular tension. Biofeedback is often used for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Anxiety Disorders.
Extinction: Withholding a reinforcer that normally follows a behavior. Behavior that fails to produce reinforcement will eventually cease.
Flooding: A treatment procedure in which a client’s anxiety is extinguished by prolonged real or imagined exposure to high-intensity feared stimuli.
In vivo desensitization: Pairing and movement through a hierarchy of anxiety, from least to most anxiety provoking situations; takes place in “real” setting.
Modeling: Method of instruction that involves an individual (the model) demonstrating the behavior to be acquired by a client.
Rational emotive therapy (RET): A cognitively oriented therapy in which a social worker seeks to change a client’s irrational beliefs by argument, persuasion, and rational reevaluation and by teaching a client to counter self-defeating thinking with new, nondistressing self-statements.
Shaping: Method used to train a new behavior by prompting and reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior.
Systematic desensitization: An anxiety-inhibiting response cannot occur at the same time as the anxiety response. Anxiety-producing stimulus is paired with relaxation-producing response so that eventually an anxiety-producing stimulus produces a relaxation response. At each step a client’s reaction of fear or dread is overcome by pleasant feelings engendered as the new behavior is reinforced by receiving a reward. The reward could be a compliment, a gift, or relaxation.
Time out: Removal of something desirable—negative punishment technique.
Token economy: A client receives tokens as reinforcement for performing specified behaviors. The tokens function as currency within the environment and can be exchanged for desired goods, services, or privileges.
Focuses on development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of brain development. It is the emergence of the ability to think and understand.
Cognitive Development
Levels of Cognition
Knowledge: rote memorization, recognition, or recall of facts
Comprehension: understanding what the facts mean
Application: correct use of the facts, rules, or ideas
Analysis: breaking down information into component parts
Synthesis: combination of facts, ideas, or information to make a new whole
Evaluation: judging or forming an opinion about the information or situation
Jean Piaget
Developmental psychologist best known for his theory of cognitive development. His stages address the acquisition of knowledge and how humans come to gradually acquire it. Piaget’s theory holds that children learn though interaction with the environment and others.
Theory of moral development
Piaget
Behaviorist (Pavlov, Skinner)
learning is viewed through change in behavior and the stimuli in the external environment are the locus of learning. Social workers aim to change the external environment in order to bring about desired change.
Cognitive (Piaget)
learning is viewed through internal mental processes (including insight, information processing, memory, and perception) and the locus of learning is internal cognitive structures. Social workers aim to develop opportunities to foster capacity and skills to improve learning.
Humanistic (Maslow)—
learning is viewed as a person’s activities aimed at reaching his or her full potential, and the locus of learning is in meeting cognitive and other needs. Social workers aim to develop the whole person.
Social/Situational (Bandura)
learning is obtained between people and their environment and their interactions and observations in social contexts. Social workers establish opportunities for conversation and participation to occur.
Human beings are inherently social. Developing competencies in this domain enhances a person’s mental health, success in work, and ability to achieve in life tasks.
Social Development
Trust Versus Mistrust
From birth to 1 year of age, children begin to learn the ability to trust others based upon the consistency of their caregiver(s). If trust develops successfully, the child gains confidence and security in the world around him or her and is able to feel secure even when threatened. Unsuccessful completion of this stage can result in an inability to trust, and therefore a sense of fear about the inconsistent world. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and feelings of mistrust in the world around them
Autonomy Versus Shame and Doubt
Between the ages of 1 and 3, children begin to assert their independence by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, and so on. If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world. If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others while lacking self-esteem and feeling a sense of shame or doubt in their own abilities.
Initiative Versus Guilt
Around age 3 and continuing to age 6, children assert themselves more frequently. They begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. They may feel like nuisances to others and will therefore remain followers, lacking self-initiative.
Industry Versus Inferiority
From age 6 to puberty, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. They initiate projects, see them through to completion, and feel good about what they have achieved. If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged but instead restricted, children begin to feel inferior, doubting their abilities, and failing to reach their potential.
Identity Versus Role Confusion
During adolescence, the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, and so on. During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identities based upon the outcome of their explorations. This sense of who they are can be hindered, which results in a sense of confusion (“I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up”) about themselves and their role in the world.
Intimacy Versus Isolation
In young adulthood, individuals begin to share themselves more intimately with others and explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with others outside the family. Successful completion can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy and fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression.
Generativity Versus Stagnation
During middle adulthood, individuals establish careers, settle down within relationships, begin families, and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture. They give back to society through raising children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. By failing to achieve these objectives, individuals become stagnant and feel unproductive
Ego Integrity Versus Despair
As individuals grow older and become senior citizens, they tend to slow down and explore life as retired people. It is during this time that they contemplate accomplishments and are able to develop a sense of integrity if they are satisfied with the progression of their lives. If they see their lives as being unproductive and failing to accomplish life goals, they become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.
Adolescent Development
The development of children ages 13 through 18 years old is a critical time as children develop the ability to understand abstract ideas, such as higher math concepts, and develop moral philosophies, including rights and privileges, and move toward a more mature sense of themselves and their purpose.
Adult Development
Changes that occur in biological, psychological, and interpersonal domains of human life from the end of adolescence until the end of life. These changes may be gradual or rapid, and can reflect positive, negative, or no change from previous levels of functioning.
Child Development
physical, mental, and socioemotional changes that occur between birth and the end of adolescence, as a child progresses from dependency to increasing autonomy.
