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Unit 1 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards USMLE® Step 1 flashcards
1
Q

What is a Monosaccharide

A

A simple, single sugar

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2
Q

How many Carbon Atoms are in a Triose Monosaccharide

A

3

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3
Q

Name an important Triose molecule

A

Glyceraldehyde

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4
Q

what is Glycogen made up of

A

Alpha Glucose

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5
Q

Is Fructose soluble

A

Yes

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6
Q

What is Galactose important in the production of

A

Glycolipids and Glycoproteins

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7
Q

Name two important important pentose molecules

A

Ribose and Deoxyribose

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8
Q

What is a condensation reaction

A

A reaction where water is removed from a reaction and from this bonds are made.

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9
Q

What bond forms between monosaccharides

A

glyosidic bond

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10
Q

what is maltose made up of

A

2 glucose molecules

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11
Q

what is lactose made up of

A

Glucose and Galactose

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12
Q

What is Sucrose made up of

A

fructose and Glucose

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13
Q

What type of sugars are Galactose and Fructose

A

Hexose sugars

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14
Q

What is the definition of a polysaccharide

A

polysaccharides are polymers containing many monosaccharides linked by glyosidic bonds

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15
Q

What is the function/ purpose of polysaccharides

A

Mainly to be used as energy store and as structural components of cells

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16
Q

Name 3 examples of polysaccharides

A

Starch, Glucose and Glycogen

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17
Q

What is a cellulose molecule made up of

A

Beta Glucose

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18
Q

What is a Hydrolysis reaction

A

A reaction where water is added and bonds are broken

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19
Q

How many carbons does glycerol have

A

3

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20
Q

In what reaction is an ester bond usually formed

A

A condensation reaction

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21
Q

What groups does an Ester bond form between

A

One of the OH groups of the Glycerol and, on the COOH groups of the Fatty Acids

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22
Q

What is the difference between a Saturated Fatty acid and a Un-saturated Fatty Acid.

A

A saturated fatty acid only contain single bonds between carbon atoms creating a straight line. Unlike, Unsaturated Fatty Acids which contain double carbon bonds between carbon atoms creating a ‘kink’ in the chain.

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23
Q

What are the 3 main roles of a lipid

A
  1. ) Energy source
  2. ) Insulation
  3. ) Protection
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24
Q

What does Hydrophilic mean

A

Enjoys and likes water.

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25
Q

What does Hydrophobic mean

A

Hates and Repels water

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26
Q

How many Fatty acids does a phospholipid have

A

2

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27
Q

What do phospholipids form due to their Hydrophilic heads and Hydrophobic tails in aqueous environments

A

Bilayers

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28
Q

What is the structure of a steroid

A

4 rings structure

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29
Q

What does the Amino group consist of

A

H2N (2 hydrogen and 1 nitrogen atoms)

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30
Q

What does the Carboxylic acid group consist of

A

COOH

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31
Q

How many R groups does a Dipeptide have

A

2

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32
Q

What is the Primary Structure of a polypeptide

A

The order/sequence of amino acids

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33
Q

What is the Secondary Structure of a polypeptide

A

Is when it goes into an Alpha Helix or a Beta Pleated Sheet

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34
Q

What is a Tertiary Structure polypeptide

A

When it takes on a 3-D state with disulphide, ionic and hydrogen bonds

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35
Q

What is a quaternary structure polypeptide

A

Multiple tertiary polypeptides bonded together.

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36
Q

One example of a Fibrous Protein

A

Collagen

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37
Q

What is a Fibrous Protein

A

A stranded more straight protein

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38
Q

What is a Globular Protein

A

A more spherical protein

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39
Q

examples of Globular proteins

A

Transport Proteins - Hormones or Haemoglobin. e.g.
and
Enzymes - Lipase and DNA polymers. e.g.

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40
Q

Name 3 things a catalyst does

A
  1. ) speeds up the rate of reaction.
  2. ) Lowers the activation energy.
  3. )Doesn’t get used up in the reaction itself.
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41
Q

What does Anabolic mean

A

Building up

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42
Q

What does Catabolic mean

A

Breaking down

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43
Q

Name 2 Enzyme theories

A

The Lock & Key theory and The Induced Fit Theory.

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44
Q

What does ‘selectively Permeable’ mean

A

Controls what can enter and leave the cell

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45
Q

Give an example of something that is selectively permeable

A

Cell membrane

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46
Q

what does the nucleus consist of

A

the nucleolus and chromatin

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47
Q

What is the nucleus surrounded by

A

Nucleus membrane

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48
Q

What is the main function of the nucleolus

A

it is where ribosomes start to form

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49
Q

Why is the rough endoplasmic reticulum seen to be ‘rough’

A

covered by ribsomes

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50
Q

Why are ribosomes so close to the nucleus.

A

so RNA can travel to it straight away

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51
Q

What is a function of smooth ER

A

Transports proteins

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52
Q

Functions of Glycoprotein

A

involvement in cell recognition and membrane stabilisation as well as receptor molecules

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53
Q

What is the main function of a receptor molecule

A

receives information outside of the cell

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54
Q

Functions of Phospholipid Bilayer

A
  1. ) Forms the structural basis of membranes.
  2. ) Acts as a barrier to some molecules.
  3. ) Enables others to freely cross membranes
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55
Q

Functions of cholesterol

A

stabilises cell membrane, without it membranes would burst open.

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56
Q

Functions of Intrinsic Proteins

A
  1. ) Important in cell signalling

2. ) Important in transport of substances across membranes

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57
Q

examples of small, non-polar molecules

A

Oxygen and CO2

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58
Q

Examples of small, polar molecules

A

Water and Urea

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59
Q

Charged particles (ions) are likely or unlikely to diffuse across a membrane

A

unlikely even if very small

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60
Q

What is a nucleic acid.

A

A long chained polymer formed from nucleotide monomers (DNA, RNA.)

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61
Q

What is a phospholipid Bilayer

A

2 layers of phospholipids back to back.

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62
Q

What is facilitated diffusion

A

Needs something to help it get passed membrane

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63
Q

What is the definition of Diffusion

A

The net movement of particles down a concentration gradient : From a region of high concentration to a region of low concentration.

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64
Q

How does temperature affect the rate of diffusion.

A

Increase in temperature = more kinetic energy = particles moving faster.

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65
Q

How does surface area affect the rate of diffusion

A

Increase in surface area, increase in rate of diffusion

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66
Q

How does thickness/viscosity affect the rate of diffusion

A

The thicker the membrane = the slower the rate of diffusion

Thin membrane = increased rate of diffusion

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67
Q

How does concentration gradient affect the rate of diffusion

A

The larger it is = The increased rate of diffusion

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68
Q

How does polarity affect the rate of diffusion

A

less polar (no charge difference) = easy diffusion

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69
Q

how does the size of a molecule affect the rate of diffusion

A

smaller = easier diffusion

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70
Q

What is the job of a carrier protein

A

to allow a molecule correct for it through

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71
Q

What is the definition of Osmosis

A

The net movement of water particles from a region of less negative water potential to a region of more negative water potential, through a partially permeable membrane

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72
Q

q

A

q

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73
Q

more negative water potential =

A

lower

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74
Q

The grater the amount of solute = the lower/higher the water potential

A

lower

75
Q

What does Hypertonic mean

A

lowest water potential - leaves cell shrivelled

76
Q

What does Hypertonic mean?

A

same concentration as a cell - No net movement to cell.

77
Q

What does Hypotonic mean.

A

Highest water potential - enters cell could burst cell

78
Q

what is the definition of active transport

A

Net movement of particles from low to high concentration (against the gradient) using carrier proteins, requiring ATP.

79
Q

What is ATP

A

Adenosine Triphosphate

80
Q

What is ATP

A
  1. )Uptake of glucose and Amino acids in small intestine
  2. ) Absorption of mineral ions by plant roots
  3. )Excretion of Hydrogen ions and Urea by Kidneys
  4. )Exchange of sodium and potassium ions in neurons and muscle cells
81
Q

What are the 2 types of Bulk Transport and what do they do

A

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

involved in changes to membranes shape.

82
Q

What is Endocytosis

A

When material enters the cell

83
Q

What is Exocytosis

A

When material leaves the cell

84
Q

What is the genetic code

A

A linear, triplet, non - overlapping, degenerate, unambiguous, universal code for the production of polypeptides.

85
Q

What is the function of the Liver

A

secretes bile,
stores Glycogen,
Breaks down toxic chemicals - Alcohol.

86
Q

Function of the Gall Bladder

A

Stores Bile

87
Q

What is Transcription

A

Transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA). DNA safely and stably stores genetic material in the nuclei of cells as a reference, or template.

88
Q

What is Translation

A

Translation is the process of translating the sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule to a sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. The genetic code describes the relationship between the sequence of base pairs in a gene and the corresponding amino acid sequence that it encodes.

89
Q

Function of the liver:

A

Secretes Bile. Stores Glycogen and Breaks down toxic chemicals - alcohol

90
Q

What does Bile do

A

Emulsifies fats and neutralises stomach acid.

91
Q

What does the Gall Bladder do

A

Stores Bile

92
Q

What is the duodenum

A

The first and shorter segment of the small intestine

93
Q

Function of the duodenum

A

Receives particularly digested food ( Known as Chyme.)

94
Q

What is the function of the Ileum

A

receives Chyme - Enzymes.

Has relatively thin smooth muscle - to contract to help with food movement - villi - micro villi - SA

95
Q

What are the parts of the Gut Wall

A 
Epithelium
Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscle Layer
Serosa
96
Q

What is in saliva that helps it break up starch

A

Amylase

97
Q

What 3 functions of saliva

A
  1. ) Includes amylase - breaks up starch
  2. ) Spreads taste around mouth
  3. ) Inhibits bacterial growth in the buccal cavity
98
Q

What are 4 functions of mucus

A
  1. ) protects
  2. ) lubricate
  3. ) carries antibodies
  4. ) Helps peristalsis
99
Q

What breaks down starch

A

salivary amylase and pancreatic amylase into maltose

100
Q

What hydrolyses starch further

A

maltose to alpha glucose

101
Q

What is lactose

A

a sugar present in milk - disaccharide

102
Q

What are disaccharides made up of

A

2 monosaccharides or simple sugars

103
Q

What is lactose made up of

A

Glucose and Galactose

104
Q

What is Sucrose made up of

A

Glucose and Fructose

105
Q

Do nutrients diffuse

A

yes

106
Q

Are nutrients soluble

A

yes

107
Q

Ph of Amylase

A

7 - neutral

108
Q

Ph of Sucrase

A

4.5 - Acidic

109
Q

Ph of Lactase

A

2-4 - very acidic

110
Q

What is the main role of Endopeptidase

A

Breaks Peptide bonds in middle of chain

111
Q

What is the main role of Exopeptidase

A

Breaks peptide bonds at end of peptide chain

112
Q

What is a long chain of amino acids called

A

polypeptides

113
Q

What are 2 inactive enzymes

A

Pepsinogen
and
Trypsinogen

114
Q

Where is pepsinogen made

A

stomach

115
Q

What is produced from pepsinogen

A

Pepsin

116
Q

What is produced from Trypsinogen

A

Trypsin

117
Q

What activates trypsinogen

A

An enteropeptidase known as Enterokinase activates it

118
Q

What activates Pepsinogen

A

Hydrochloric acid

119
Q

What is Enterokinase

A

An enzyme produced by duodenum cells and involved in digestion. secreted from intestinal gland.

120
Q

What are lipases

A

A group of enzymes that break down fat molecules into glycerol and fatty acids.

121
Q

What is the order of the respiratory system

A

Mouth - Trachea - Bronchus/Bronchi - Bronchioles - Alveoli - capillary

122
Q

What is surrounded by rings of cartilage

A

Trachea

123
Q

Does alveoli have a High/low capillary density

A

high

124
Q

how many cells thick is the alveoli

A

1 cell thick

125
Q

Why is it useful that an alveoli has a large surface area

A

so that there is an increased rate of diffusion

126
Q

Deoxygenated blood enters alveoli, leaves…

A

oxygenated

127
Q

What is the benefit of an alveoli being one cell thick

A

there is a shorter diffusion distance

128
Q

What is the long surfactant made of

A

Phospholipids

129
Q

what are the functions of the lung surfactant

A
  1. ) Prevents lungs from collapsing

2. ) Reduces surface tension

130
Q

What are the functions of goblet cells

A
  1. ) turn mucia into mucus.

2. ) Traps pathogens to prevent infection

131
Q

On ciliated epithelial cells what is the job of the cilia

A

wafts mucus into stomach

132
Q

what can damage cilia

A

smoking

133
Q

What are the steps for inspiration

A
  1. )Diaphragm - contracts
  2. )Intercostal muscle contracts and ribs go up and out
  3. ) Increased volume of thoracic cavity
  4. ) Decreased pressure
  5. ) As atmospheric pressure is higher air gets forced in.
134
Q

What are the steps for expiration

A
  1. )Diaphragm - loosens and relaxes.
  2. ) Intercostal muscle loosens and ribs go down and in.
  3. )Decreased volume of thoracic cavity.
  4. )Increased pressure
  5. )As atmospheric pressure is lower air gets forced out .
135
Q

What is the pleural cavity

A

Is a gap between the chest wall and outer walls of the lungs - filled by water cohesion - helps lungs expand with the chest while breathing.

136
Q

What is the role of pleural fluid

A

lubricates the lungs

137
Q

What is the RCC and what other control centres does it contain

A

Respiratory control centre, contains inspiratory control centre and expiratory control centre.

138
Q

What are the 4 receptors of the RCC and what are each of them sensitive towards.

A

Chemoreceptor - change in CO2, Lactic acid
Proprioceptor - change in Movement
Thermoreceptor - Change in Temperature
Baroreceptor - Change in Pressure

139
Q

What is the cardiac cycle from lungs to the body

A

lungs - pulmonary veins - left atrium - left ventricle - aorta - body

140
Q

What is the cardiac cycle form body to the lungs

A

body - vena cava - right atrium - right ventricle - pulmonary arteries - lungs.

141
Q

Why can the heart be called a double pump

A

double pump = 2 sides of the heart.
right side = lungs
left side = body

142
Q

What muscle makes up the heart

A

cardiac muscle

143
Q

what does the cardiac muscle do

A

contracts involuntarily

144
Q

What is cardiac muscle connected by

A

cytoplasmic bridges

145
Q

What is the function of the Atrial systole

A

Atria contract = pressure increase - blood forced into ventricles through bi and tri valves

146
Q

What is the function of ventricular systole

A

Ventricles contract = increased pressure - blood forced out of heart through pulmonary artery and aorta.

147
Q

What is diastolic pressure

A

Relaxation phase = Atria refill with blood - needs to relax to allow oxygenated blood in.

148
Q

What is another term for the mouth

A

Buccal cavity

149
Q

What does the mouth contain.

A

Teeth
Tounge
Salivary glands

150
Q

What are 3 functions of the Salivary glands

A
  • Produces saliva
  • Moistens food helping to create a bolus (ball of food you can swallow.)
  • Contains amylase - breaks starch into maltose and dextrin. Maltose then breaks down into alpha glucose - therefore hydrolysed (gone through hydrolysis.
  • inhibits bacterial growth.
151
Q

What is peristalsis in the oesophagus.

A

Muscular rhythm contraction that pushes food down into the stomach.

152
Q

Why does the oesophagus have cartilage rings

A

Protect the oesophagus and trachea from damage and they hold it in place.

153
Q

What does protease(pepsin) do in the stomach

A

breaks proteins into amino acids.

154
Q

What does HCL do in the stomach.

A
  • breaks food into smaller pieces and gives correct pH of 1-2.
  • Kills majority of bacteria and pathogens.
155
Q

What is the main role of chemical and mechanical digestion.

A

break down food.

156
Q

What sphincters are there..

A

lower oesophageal sphincter and pyloric sphincter.

157
Q

Where is the oesophagul sphincter

A

toe of stomach at entrance

158
Q

Where is the pyloric sphincter

A

bottom of stomach at exit.

159
Q

what does myogenic mean

A

can beat without any input from nervous system.

160
Q

What is another word for the sinoatrial node.

A

pacemaker

161
Q

what are the 6 steps of the conduction system.

A
  1. )Sinoatrial node fires impulses around the atria.
  2. )Slight delay at atrioventricular node - to allow blood into ventricles.
  3. )Atrioventricular node fires impulses down the bundle of his.
  4. )Impulses spreads around ventricles in the purkinje fibres.
  5. )Ventricles contract. -= blood forced out of heart.
  6. )Diastole phase - atria fill with blood.
162
Q

What dos the p-wave mean in terms of the conduction system

A

That the Atria is depolarizing.

163
Q

What does the QRS Complex mean in terms of then conduction system

A

that the ventricles are depolarizing.

164
Q

What does the T-wave mean in terms of the conduction system

A

That the ventricles are repolarizing.

165
Q

What are 4 features of arteries

A
  1. ) The can expand and contract.
  2. ) Small Lumen
  3. ) Thick muscular wall.
  4. )Blood under a lot of pressure.
166
Q

What are 3 features of veins.

A
  1. )Low pressure
  2. ) Mainly carry deoxygenated blood.
  3. )More veins than arteries.
167
Q

What do arteries transport blood from

A

heart

168
Q

Why are arteries structured as they are

A

so they can withstand and maintain high pressure.

169
Q

What is the job of arterioles

A

to constrict and reduce blood flow through the capillaries. have less elastic tissue and more smooth muscles.

170
Q

What are the main functions of blood

A
  1. ) Transportation
  2. )Defence
  3. )Thermoregulation
  4. )Maintaining pH of bodily fluids.
171
Q

What are the 3 main types of cell

A
  1. )Erythrocytes. - red blood cells.
  2. )Leukocytes - White blood cells.
  3. )Thrombocyte - clot the blood.
172
Q

How much of the blood is made up of plasma

A

55%

173
Q

How is an erythrocyte structured

A

flattened biconcave disc shape.

174
Q

Why does an erythrocyte have its flattened biconcave disc structure

A
  • To have a large amount of haemoglobin - for transporting more oxygen
  • No nucleus or organelles. - to make more space for haemoglobin.
  • Thinner to reduce diffusion distance.
175
Q

What are thrombocytes responsible for.

A

Blood clotting.

176
Q

How is oxygen transported

A
  1. ) Transported in haemoglobin. red pigment cells in erythrocytes.
  2. ) Oxygen diffuses into blood at lungs. Binds to haemoglobin proteins (oxyhaemoglobin.)
  3. ) Oxygen disassociates from haemoglobin in the tissue and diffuses into the tissue.
177
Q

How is C02 transported

A

Transported in 3 ways;

  1. ) As dissolved C02 in the blood.
  2. ) As Carbaminohemoglobin inn the red blood cells.
  3. ) As HCO3 ions in the red blood cells
178
Q

What is an antigen

A

A protein found on outside of a cell acts as a signal to other cells.

179
Q

What is the use of maltose in living organisms

A

Product of starch digestion

180
Q

What is the purpose of sucrose in living organisms

A

Table sugar

181
Q

What is the purpose of lactose in living organisms

A

Milk sugar

182
Q

What is glycogen

A

a branched polymer of alpha-glucose

183
Q

What is glycogen used for in the human body

A

An energy store on muscle and liver cells.

184
Q

Why does being branched help glycogen

A

Can easily be hydrolysed back into alpha glucose

Medical Science (3 decks)

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