Unit 1 Flashcards
“breast-fed infants will differ from formula-fed infants on frequency of ear infections” is an example of
Two-tailed hypothesis
“breast-fed infants will have fewer ear infections than formula-fed infants” is an example of
One-tailed hypothesis
Operational definitions
measurable behaviors used, for the purposes of that experiment, to define some concept/variable
Regression analysis
statistical technique that examines the relationship between a dependent/response variable and multiple independent/explanatory variables; is based on correlation
Subject variables
any traits/variables that an individual brings to the experiment (ex: sex, birth order)
Confounding variables
Variables that, b/c of poor research design or insufficient control, may alter results (Z)
Repeated Measure Design is aka
Within-subject design
Why is longitudinal research non-representative?
a. Self-selection of those willing to participate
b. Selective attrition
c. Only a single age group might be studied, leading to a cross-generational problem
Cohort effects
results due to social or historical backgrounds of subjects in each cohort, not to age/development
Development involves both
Growth and decay
Counterbalancing
a type of experimental design (in the within-subject design) in which all possible orders of presenting the variables are included to eliminate practice and fatigue
Field experiment
applies the scientific method to experimentally examine an intervention in the real world (naturally occurring environments) rather than in the laboratory
Maturation
Part of the “innate goodness” view: a genetically determined unfolding of growth and development (innate abilities)
Psychoanalytic theory
Development is primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion
Cognitive theories
Emphasize conscious thought
Cognitive developmental theory
Piaget
Behavioral and Social Cognitive theory
We can study scientifically only what can be directly observed and measured
Ethological theory
Behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods
Ecological theory
Emphasizes environmental factors (Bronfenbrenner)
Ecletic theoretical orientation
Selects from each theory the best features
Adaptive behavior
behavior that promotes an organism’s survival in the natural habitat
Emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and survival of the fittest in shaping behavior
Evolutionary psychology
Natural selection favors behaviors that increase
reproductive success
The human genome
the complete set of developmental info for creating proteins that initiate the making of a human organism
Chromosomes
carry the genetic material of an individual
Genes
stretches of DNA that code for production of a specific protein, corresponding to a unit of inheritance
Alleles
the different versions of a gene, which occur at the same locus on chromosome pairs (ex: brown vs. blue eyes)
Karyotype
complete set of chromosomes in an individual
Nucleotide
a compound consisting of a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group; form the basic structural unit of nucleic acids such as DNA
Gamete
a cell that fuses with another in fertilization: sperm or ovum
Mitosis
the process by which DNA duplicates itself
Meiosis
the process by which the gametes are formed
Crossing over
genetic material from homologous chromosomes is randomly swapped resulting in 4 unique chromatids: increases genetic variability
Crossing over occurs during
meiosis: prophase 1
Fertilization
a stage in reproduction during which an egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell (a zygote)
Most mutated genes are
recessive
Most ppl who have X-linked diseases are __, while __ will be carriers
males, females
Polygenetic inheritance
the characteristics are determined by the interaction of multiple genes
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Chr. 12
Galactosemia
Chr. 9 or 17 or 1
Cystic Fibrosis
Chr. 7
Fragile X syndrome
the X chromosome becomes constricted and often breaks
Down syndrome
Trisomy 21
Mosaicism is possible in Down Syndrome
the extra chromosome shows up in some cells, but not in other
Hypotheses for why older women are more likely to give birth to a child with Trisomy X
- Older egg
- Relaxed selection (false)
Relaxed selection hypothesis
® At conception, all mothers have the same chance of chromosomal abnormality
® At birth, older mothers have a higher chance: go through “relaxed selection”
Edward’s syndrome
Trisomy 18
Patau syndrome
Trisomy 13
Turner syndrome
(X-) female w/missing X
Klinefelter syndrome
(XXY): males have an extra X
Triple/Quad Screen Test
□ Alpha-feta protein (AFP) □ Estriol
□ hCG (human Chorionic Gonadotropin)
□ inhibin A
Ultrasound
High frequency sound waves are beamed into the uterus & their reflection reveals the size, shape, and position of the fetus
Chorion
the fetal membrane that will form the fetal side of the placenta
Chorionic Villus Sampling
A tissue sample is removed from chorion by pushing narrow needle in 15-20 times
Amniocentesis
Fetal cells are extracted from the amniotic fluid and cultured for analysis
infertility
inability to conceive a child after 12 months of regular intercourse w/o contraception
-% of Americans experience infertility
10-15%
In vitro fertilization (IVF)
eggs and sperm are combined in a petri dish, then the fertilized egg is transferred into the woman’s uterus
The success rate of IVF depends on
the mother’s age
Consequences of IVF
Increase in multiple births, low birth weight
Heritability
the extent that individual differences within some population are due to genetics
Canalization
the degree to which a trait is constrained by genetics
Range-of-Reaction
Genes set boundaries & establish a range of reactions; because of different genotypes, individuals will respond differently to the same environment
Niche-picking (Active Interaction)
Genotype contributes propensities toward certain skills & abilities, we then seek activities compatible with our genetic endowment
Passive Interaction
when parents set up an environment consistent with their (and their child’s) predispositions
Evocative Interaction
when a child’s traits influence the behavior of those around him/he
Shared environmental experiences
Siblings’ common environmental experiences, Accounts for little of the variation in personality/interests
Nonshared environmental experiences
The child’s own unique experiences, Influenced by heredity-environmental correlations
Epigenetic view
theory that dev. is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange b/w hereditary & environment
Conception occurs when
a sperm penetrates the egg cell and fertilizes it, and the two cells combine
Follicle
fluid-filled sac that contains the immature egg cell and surrounding cells
corpus lutem
the ruptured follicle
oocytes
immature egg cells in the ovaries
Endometrium
uterine lining
the sites of sperm production
seminiferous tubules (inside the testes)
Prostrate gland
secretes fluid that nurtures the sperm
The epididymis lies on top of the ___; Immature sperm migrate here to ___
seminiferous tubules; migrate from the seminiferous tubules to the epididymis to mature and be stored.
preformationism
theory that the egg or sperm contains a completely-formed homunculus
Epigenesis
emergence of new structures during development
placenta
provides a means of nutrition & oxygen, and a disposal system for the waste products of its own metabolism
chorion
the outer membrane that surrounds the amnion: provides extra protection and exchange of nutrients & fluids
amnion
a thin but tough sac of membrane that covers an embryo, protecting it: contains the amniotic fluid & growing embryo
Organogenesis
Cell differentiation
Unlimited stem cells
From fertilized embryos, are pluripotent (can develop into any type of cell)
Limited (Adult) stem cells
Can only repair the organ from which they came
neural tube
a pear-shaped hollow tube along the embryo’s back
the face starts as a series of paired tissue mounds called
branchial arches
fetus
9 weeks - birth
sexual differentiation
process in which the fetus produces hormones that causes its sex organs to grow into male/female organs
sexual analogs
originate from the same structure
genital tubercle –>
M: penis
F: clitoris
Urogenital folds –>
M: urethra
F: labia minora
Labioscrotal swellings –>
M: scrotum
F: labia majora
Eve principle
in the absence of androgens, fetus will develop external sex organs of a female
Organizing effects of hormones
hormones alter structures in the body and brain
Androgen insensitivity syndrome
X-linked recessive trait that prevents cells from being responsive to androgens; chromosomal male develops into a female
the most amount of growth for the fetus occurs during
month 4-5
myelination of neurons occurs during
month 4
vernix
oil-based deposit on the skin of a fetus or baby; month 4
lanugo
soft, downy hair on fetus; month 4
viability
can survive outside the womb
Prenatal reflexes (2)
sucking, rooting
Teratogen
any agent that causes a birth defect (structural damage) or alter cognitive/behavioral outcomes
Clastogens
might cause damage to embryos in the fetus, but not necessarily structural damage
oxytocin
the hormone which causes the labor contractions, underlies the release of milk
breech position
the baby’s buttocks are the 1st part to emerge (normally, the head should come through the vagina first)
The Apgar Scale is used 1-5 minutes after birth
Evaluates heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, body color, & reflex irritability
The Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS) is performed 24-36 hours after birth
Also used up to 1 month after birth to assess neurological development, reflexes, and reactions to people/objects
Low birth weight infants weigh
less than 5.5 lbs. at birth
Preterm infants
those born 3(+) weeks before the pregnancy has reached full term (before the completion of 37 weeks of gestation)
__ may help reduce preterm infants (in women w/history, short cervix, or pregnant w/singletons)
progestin
Palmar reflex
hand grasping
Rooting reflex
head turns toward direction from which cheek was stroked, opens mouth, sucks
Moro reflex
aka startle, throws arms out
Babinski reflex
toes pan out, foot twists in
Cephalocaudal Principle
growth and coordination tend to move from the head downward
(early childhood) 2 important contributors to height differences
ethnic origin and nutrition
Menarche
a girl’s first menstruation
the main class of male sex hormones
androgens
the main class of female sex hormones
estrogens
3 most rapid increases in growth
1) prenatal 4th month
2) birth-6 months
3) puberty
Catch-up growth
After a period of stress or malnutrition if you fix it in time, they should go back to what they should’ve been
Lagging-down growth
If some illness/metabolic dysfunction leads to over-inflated growth & the disorder is corrected, growth may stop or slow until previous trajectory reached
Failure-to-thrive
low weight for the child’s age or low rate of increase in the weight
Rate of brain growth isn’t as strong after
3 years old
synaptogenesis –>
Increase (strengthen) neuron connections –> learn
By age __, their brain is 80% the size of an adults’ brain
3
Brain development very rapid in first __ years of life
2
In general, development of the brain proceeds from __ to __
from back to front
the hormone responsible for milk production
Prolactin
Breastmilk is high in
lipids
Cows’ milk is high in
protein
DHA (docosehexaenoic acid) - omega-3 fatty acid
Promotes brain growth
ARA (arachiodonic acid) - omega-6 fatty acid
Promotes brain growth and muscle growth & repair
EGF (epidermal growth factor)
promotes cell proliferation and the maturation of many structures
__-__ months is considered most critical risk for SIDS
2-6 months
Brains of infants that die of SIDS show lower levels of
serotonin
serotonin regulates
breathing, heart rate, sleep
over __% of all U.S. males & only __% of world’s men, are circumcised
50% US, 18% world
Risks of circumcision
Neonatal hemorrhage (one of the leading causes of infant death), infection, later erectile dysfunction (5x greater), decrease in sensation, damage to urethra
Pros of circumcision
religious, prevention of UTIs and penile cancers, STDS, HIV/AIDs
