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Pathophysiology with Price > Unit 1 > Flashcards

Unit 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is atrophy?

A

Decreased cell size

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2
Q

What is hypertrophy

A

Increase in the mass of a cell

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3
Q

What is hyperplasia?

A

Increase in the number of cells

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4
Q

What is dysplasia?

A

Abnormal cell growth

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5
Q

What is metaplasia?

A

Adaptive substitution to a different “hardier” cell line

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6
Q

How do cells become injured?

A

Hypoxia, free radicals, lead poisoning, toxic chemical agents, ethanol, trauma, asphyxia, nutritional imbalances, extreme temperature, atmospheric pressure, water pressure, ionizing radiation, noise, and cellular accumulations

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7
Q

What is hypoxia?

A

Deprivation of oxygen and is the most common cause of non-adaptive cellular injury

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8
Q

What causes hypoxia?

A

Low levels of oxygen, poor or absent hemoglobin, respiratory or cardiovascular disease, or ischemia

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9
Q

What occurs due to hypoxia?

A

There is a reduction of oxidative metabolism so ATP levels decline, change in membrane permeability, cellular accumulations, decrease in protein synthesis, increase in glycolysis.

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10
Q

What happens when ATP levels decline?

A

Na/K pump activity decreases; Na accumulates inside the cells and water follows. Intracellular K decreases

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11
Q

What happens due to excess Na and water inside the cell and a decrease in K inside the cell?

A

Decreased protein synthesis, decreased membrane transport (symport and anti port systems are disrupted), and increased lipids (lipogenesis)

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12
Q

What is a result of cell damage/ cell death?

A

Water accumulation

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13
Q

What is a result of change in membrane permeability?

A

There is an increase in intracellular Ca++ that impairs mitochondrial function

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14
Q

What is cellular accumulation?

A

Abnormal amount of substances in the cell; increase in water, increase in lipids, increase in proteins

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15
Q

Why does hypoxia cause a decrease in protein synthesis?

A

Ribosomes are separated from endoplasmic reticulum due to increase levels of fluid

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16
Q

Why does hypoxia cause an increase in glycolysis?

A

Glycolysis does not require oxygen; where electron transport chain does

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17
Q

What is a result of an increase in glycolysis?

A

Lactic acid accumulates and causes low cellular pH; lysosomes swell and dump, chromatin clumps, proteins denature

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18
Q

What is a free radical?

A

An atom or molecule with an unpaired electron, which makes it very unstable and active

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19
Q

Give 3 examples of free radicals

A

Superoxide ion (O2-), Hydroxyl (OH-), and Peroxinitrite ion (ONOO-)

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20
Q

What causes the formation of free radicals?

A

Normal metabolism, ionizing radiation, and drug metabolism

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21
Q

What are the 3 types of mechanisms to cause injury due to free radicals?

A

Lipid peroxidation, Protein destruction, and DNA alteration

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22
Q

What is lipid peroxidation?

A

Destruction of unsaturated fatty acids

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23
Q

What is protein destruction?

A

Fragmentation of polypeptide chains and denaturation

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24
Q

What is DNA alteration?

A

Breakage of DNA strands

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25
Q

How do you inactivate free radicals?

A

Antioxidants and enzymes

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26
Q

How do antioxidants inactivate free radicals?

A

Block synthesis

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27
Q

Name 5 antioxidants

A

Vitamin E, vitamin C, albumin, ceruloplasmin (carries copper), and transferrin (carries iron)

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28
Q

How does lead poisoning cause cellular injury?

A

Interferes with neurotransmitters in the CNS resulting in wrist, finger and foot paralysis in the PNS. Interferes with hemoglobin synthesis; acts like iron by binding to hemoglobin decreases oxygen carrying capacity

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29
Q

Name 6 sources of lead poisoning

A

Paint, dust and soil, contaminated tap water, dyes, and pottery glazes

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30
Q

Give an example of toxic chemical agents that cause cellular injury

A

Carbon monoxide (CO); has 300x the affinity for hemoglobin as oxygen does

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31
Q

What are some symptoms of CO poisoning?

A

Nausea and vomiting, headache, weakness, and tinnitus (ringing in the ears)

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32
Q

How does ethanol cause cellular injury?

A

In the liver ethanol is covered to acetaldehyde which is toxic to the liver due the formation of free radicals

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33
Q

What are the 3 most common forms of cell injury?

A

Hypoxia, reactive oxygen species and free radicals, and chemical injury

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34
Q

Define blunt-force injury

A

Mechanical injuries resulting in tearing, shearing, or crushing of tissues

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35
Q

What is a contusion?

A

Bleeding into the skin or underlying tissue; a bruise

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36
Q

What is a hematoma?

A

A collection of blood in an enclosed space; compartment syndrome

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37
Q

What is an abrasion?

A

Removal of the superficial layers of the skin

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38
Q

What is laceration?

A

A rip or tear when the elasticity of the skin or tissue will not hold up to the pressure applied by injuring object

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39
Q

What is an incised wound?

A

A cut that is longer than it is deep

40
Q

What is a stab wound?

A

A cut that is deeper than it is long

41
Q

How does a stab wound compare to a puncture wound?

A

A puncture wound is smaller

42
Q

What are the 2 types of gunshot wounds?

A

Penetrating = bullet remains in the body and perforating = bullet exits the body

43
Q

What is asphyxia?

A

Failure of airflow (oxygen) to the lungs

44
Q

Name 4 types of asphyxia

A

Suffocation = blocking the airway (choking), strangulation = outward compression, chemical = impair cells ability to pick up oxygen, and drowning = anything where fluid is involved

45
Q

How do nutritional imbalances cause cellular injury?

A

Low levels of plasma proteins (albumin) encourages water to move into the tissues causing edema, hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia, and vitamin deficiencies

46
Q

Name 5 physical agents that cause cell injury

A

Extremem temperatures, atmospheric pressure, water pressure, ionizing radiation, and noise

47
Q

What is hypothermia?

A

When the body core temp is less than 35 degrees C

48
Q

What are some results of hypothermia?

A

Vasoconstriction and ice crystal formation causing cellular swelling

49
Q

What happens to the blood viscosity as a result of hypothermia?

A

It increases; blood gets thicker

50
Q

What is hyperthermia?

A

When the body core temp is greater than 40.6 degrees C

51
Q

What is a result of hyperthermia?

A

Loss of fluids and plasma proteins; sweat a lot

52
Q

How does atmospheric pressure cause cell injury?

A

Blast injuries in which compressed waves of air squeeze you; thorax collapses, organs hemorrhage and rupture

53
Q

How does water pressure cause cellular injury?

A

Causes nitrogen to dissolve in blood then when pressure is removed, nitrogen is released and forms gas emboli (air bubbles)

54
Q

Explain how ionizing radiation causes cellular injury?

A

When radiated electrons are removed from active cells creating free radicals

55
Q

What is the most vulnerable target for radiation and when?

A

DNA when cells are actively replicating - pregnancy and sperm cells

56
Q

How is cellular injury caused by noise?

A

Acute loud noise or cumulative effect; hair cells in the cochlea are damaged and decreasing hearing ability

57
Q

Cellular accumulations

A

Water, lipids, carbohydrates, glycogen, protein, pigments, calcium, and urate

58
Q

Define necrosis

A

Local cell death involving self/auto digestion and lysis

59
Q

What the 5 types of necrosis?

A

Coagulative, liquefactive, caseous, fat, and gangrenous

60
Q

Coagulative necrosis

A

Caused by protein denaturation; albumin is changed from a gelatinous transparent state to a firm, opaque state

61
Q

What plays a role in coagulative necrosis?

A

Intracellular calcium

62
Q

Where is coagulative necrosis commonly found?

A

Kidneys, hear, and adrenal glands

63
Q

Liquefactive necrosis

A

Brain cells have a large amount of digestive enzymes (hydrolase) that cause neural tissue to become soft and liquefy

64
Q

Can liquefactive necrosis occur due to infections?

A

Yes; hydrolytic enzymes are released from neutrophils to fight invading pathogens

65
Q

Where is liquefactive necrosis commonly found?

A

Occurs in neurons and glial cells of the CNS (brain)

66
Q

Caseous necrosis

A

Combination of coagulative and liquefactive necrosis; the tissue is destroyed but not completely digested resulting in remaining tissue looking like clumped cheese

67
Q

What causes caseous necrosis?

A

Pulmonary infections with Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB)

68
Q

Where is caseous necrosis most common?

A

The lungs

69
Q

Fat necrosis

A

Lipases found in very high levels in “lipo” (fat) tissues; break down triglycerides, releasing free fatty acids which combine with calcium, magnesium, and sodium to form soaps

70
Q

Where in fat necrosis commonly found?

A

Breast, pancreas, and abdominal tissues

71
Q

Gangrenous necrosis

A

Wide-spread death of tissues due to hypoxia

72
Q

Name the 3 types of gangrenous necrosis

A

Wet (liquefactive), dry (coagulative), and gas (bubbles of gas form)

73
Q

What causes gas gangrenous necrosis?

A

Clostridium bacteria (anaerobic) also found in tetanus and botulism cause gas bubbles to form

74
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

Cell death involved in normal and pathological conditions that depends on cellular signals to signal protein cleavage (proteases) within the cell

75
Q

Apoptosis vs Necrosis

A

Apoptosis is an active process, affects scattered, individual cells, and results in cell shrinkage, not lysis and swelling

76
Q

Suicide victim

A

Apoptosis

77
Q

Gene activation in “chosen” cells

A

Apoptosis

78
Q

Cells shrink

A

Apoptosis

79
Q

Homicide victim

A

Necrosis

80
Q

Death is widespread

A

Necrosis

81
Q

Cells swell and lyse

A

Necrosis

82
Q

Aging and cell death is caused by

A

Accumulations of injurious events (environment) and is the result of genetically-controlled developmental program

83
Q

Mechanisms of aging include

A

Genetic, environmental, and behavioral, changes in regulatory mechanisms, and degenerative alterations

84
Q

What is somatic death?

A

Death of an entire organism; cessation or respiration and circulation

85
Q

Name the 4 signs of somatic death

A

Algor mortis, livor mortis, rigor mortis, and postmortem autolysis

86
Q

What is algor mortis?

A

Skin becomes pale and the body temperature decreases

87
Q

What is liver mortis?

A

Blood collects and the skin changes to a purplish color on the peripheral tissues

88
Q

What is rigor mortis?

A

Depletion of ATP keeps contractile proteins from detaching causing muscle stiffness (myosin remains permanently bound to actin); usually diminishes within 12 - 14 hours

89
Q

What is postmortem autolysis?

A

Break down of muscle and other tissues

90
Q

What is the distribution of body fluids?

A

40% solids and 60% liquid (water)

91
Q

What is the percentage of intracellular fluid?

A

2/3

92
Q

What is the percentage of extracellular fluid?

A

1/3

93
Q

What components are in ECF?

A

Plasma, lymph, synovial fluid, interstitial fluid, CSF, urine, sweat, intestinal, biliary, hepatic, and pancreatic

94
Q

What are the 3 osmotic forces?

A

Isosmotic, hyperosmotic, and hyposmotic

95
Q

Define isosmotic

A

Concentrations of two fluids separated by a membrane are equal

96
Q

Define hyperosmotic

A

The concentration of the ECF is higher than that of the ICF. Net movement is from ICF to ECF

97
Q

Define hyposmotic

A

The concentration of the ICF is higher than that of the ECF. Net movement is from ECF to ICF

Pathophysiology with Price (5 decks)

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