Unit 1

Question 1

Atherosclerosis

Answer 1

This heart disease is caused by deposits of cholesterol and other substances on the arterial walls, which form plaques that narrow the arteries. Tissue damage occurs when the presence of atherosclerotic plaques reduces the flow of blood through the arteries and interferes with the passage of nutrients from the capillaries into the cells. Poor health habits such as smoking and a high-fat diet have led to two primary clinical manifestations associated with atherosclerosis:
o Angina pectoris, or chest pain, occurs because the muscle tissue of the hear must continue its activity without a sufficient supply of oxygen or adequate removal of carbon dioxide and other waste products.
o Myocardial infarction is most likely to occur when a clot has developed in a coronary vessel and blocks the flow of blood to the heart. A myocardial infarction, also known as a heart attack, can cause death.

Question 2

Arteriosclerosis

Answer 2

a vessel disorder that hardens the arteries, and results when calcium, slats, and scar tissue react with the elastic tissue of the arteries. The consequence is to decrease the elasticity of the arteries, making them rigid and hard. Blood pressure then increases because the arteries cannot dilate and constrict to help blood move, and hypertension (high blood pressure) may result.

Question 3

Phlebitis

Answer 3

a disorder that produces inflammation of a vein wall, often accompanied by water retention and pain. The condition typically results from an infection surrounding the vein, from varicose veins, from pregnancy-related bodily changes, or from the pressure of a tumor on the vein. The chief threat posed by phlebitis is that it can encourage the production of blood clots, which then block circulation.

Question 4

Varicose veins

Answer 4

are superficial veins that have become dilated or swollen. Typically, veins in the lower extremities of the body are most susceptible because they are subjected to great pressure from the force of gravity.

Question 5

Rheumatic Fever

Answer 5

a bacterial infection that originated in the connective tissue and can spread to the heart, potentially affecting the functioning of the heart valves. The flaps of the valves may be changed into rigid, thickened structures that interfere with the flow of blood between the atrium and the ventricle. People with rheumatic fever, or with congenital heart disease, are particularly vulnerable to endocarditis, the inflammation of the membrane that lines the cavities of the heart, which is caused by staphylococcus or streptococcus organisms.

Question 6

anemia

Answer 6

a condition in which the number of red blood cells or amount of hemoglobin is below normal. Through loss of blood, much vital iron (essential for the production of hemoglobin) is lost. Iron supplements must sometimes be taken to offset this problem. Other forms of anemia, including aplastic anemia, may occur because the bone marrow is unable to produce a sufficient number of red blood cells. The result if a decrease in the blood’s transport capabilities, causing tissues to receive too little oxygen and to be left with to much carbon dioxide.

Question 7

erythrocytosis

Answer 7

a disorder characterized by an excess of red blood cells. It may result from a lack of oxygen in the tissues or as a secondary manifestation of other diseases. It also increases the viscosity of the blood and reduces the rate of blood flow.

Question 8

sickle-cell anemia

Answer 8

a disease related to red blood cell production. A genetically transmitted inability to produce normal red blood cells. These cells are sickle-shaped instead of flattened spheres, and they contain abnormal hemoglobin

Question 9

hemophilia

Answer 9

a clotting dysfunction that affects individuals who are unable to produce thromboplastin and fibrin. Therefore, their blood cannot clot naturally in response to injury, and they may bleed to death unless they receive medication.

Question 10

Distinguish between humoral and cell-mediated immunity.

Answer 10

Humoral immunity is mediated by B lymphocytes (produced in bone marrow), which protect against bacteria, neutralizing toxins produced by bacteria, and preventing viral re-infection. B cells confer immunity by the production and secretion of antibodies, which are the basis of the antigen-specific reactions.

Cell-mediated immunity involves T lymphocytes (produced in thymus gland) and is a slower acting response. Rather than releasing antibodies into the blood, as humoral immunity does, cell-mediated immunity operates at the cellular level. When stimulated by the appropriate antigen, T cells secrete chemical agents that kill invading organisms and infected cells.

Question 11

epilepsy

Answer 11

• Epilepsy is a disease of the central nervous system affecting more than 3 million people in the United States. It is often idiopathic, which means that no specific cause for the symptoms can be identified. Symptomatic epilepsy may be traced to injury during birth; severe injury to the head, infectious disease, or metabolic or nutritional disorders. Epilepsy is marked by seizures, which range from barely noticeable staring or purposeless motor movements to violent convulsions accompanied by irregular breathing, drooling, and loss of consciousness. Epilepsy cannot be cured, but it can often be successfully controlled through medication and behavioral interventions.

Question 12

cerebral palsy

Answer 12

• Cerebral palsy is a chronic, non-progressive disorder marked by lack of muscle control. It stems from brain damage caused by an interruption in the brain’s oxygen supply, usually during childbirth. In older children, a severe accident or physical abuse can produce the condition. Sufferers may also have seizures, spasms, mental retardation, difficulties of sensation and perception, and problems with sight, hearing, or speech.

Question 13

Parkinson’s

Answer 13

• Parkinson’s disease is marked by progressive degeneration of the basal ganglia, the group of nuclei that controls smooth motor coordination. The result of this deterioration is tremors, rigidity, and slowness of movement. Although the cause of Parkinson’s disease is not fully known, depletion of the neurotransmitter dopamine may be involved. Patients may be treated with medication, but massive doses, which can cause undesirable effects, are often required for control of the symptoms.

Question 14

multiple sclerosis

Answer 14

• Multiple sclerosis is a degenerative disease of certain brain tissues can cause paralysis and, occasionally, blindness, deafness, and mental deterioration. Early symptoms include numbness, double vision, dragging of the feet, loss of bladder or bowel control, speech difficulties, and extreme fatigue. The effects of the disorder result from the disintegration of myelin, a fatty membrane that surrounds the nerve fibers and facilitates the conduction of nerve impulses. Multiple sclerosis is an autoimmune disorder, so-called because the immune system fails to recognize its own tissue and attacks the myelin sheath surrounding nerves.

Question 15

Huntington’s disease

Answer 15

• Huntington’s disease is a hereditary disorder of the central nervous system, and characterized by chronic physical and mental deterioration. Symptoms include involuntary muscle spasms, loss of motor abilities, personality changes, and other signs of mental disintegration. Because some of the symptoms are similar to those of epilepsy, Huntington’s disease is sometimes mistaken for epilepsy.

Question 16

polio

Answer 16

Polio or (poliomyelitis) is viral disease that attacks the spinal nerves and destroys the cell bodies of motor neurons so that motor impulses cannot be carried from the spinal cord outward to the peripheral nerves or muscles. Depending on the degree of damage that is done, the individual may be left with difficulties of walking and moving properly, ranging from shrunken and ineffective limbs to full paralysis.

Question 17

Two types of paralysis

Answer 17

• Two types of paralysis: Paraplegia is paralysis of the lower extremities of the body; which results from an injury to the lower portion of the spinal cord. Quadriplegia is paralysis of all four extremities and the trunk of the body; it occurs when the upper portion of the spinal cord is severed. Once the spinal cord has been severed, no motor impulses can descend to tissues below that cut nor can sensory impulses from the tissues below the cut ascend to the brain. As a consequence, a person usually loses bladder and bowel control. Moreover, the muscles below the cut area may well lose their tone, becoming weak and flaccid.

Question 18

Discuss the course of treatment for anorexia nervosa and bulimia.

Answer 18

Anorexia: Initially, the chief target of therapy is to bring the patient’s weight back up to a safe level, a goal that must often be undertaken in a residential treatment setting, such as a hospital. To achieve weight gain, most therapies use cognitive behavioral approaches. With anorexics, motivational issues are especially important. That is, inducing the anorexic to want to change her behavior and to adapt an active, collaborative to regaining weight and changing behavior is essential. Family therapy may be initiated to help families learn positive methods of communicating emotion and conflict. Therapeutic goals also include improving self-esteem and teaching coping skills for stress and social pressure.

Bulimia: Therapeutic approaches focus on self-monitoring of eating behavior; increasing the regularity of meals; encouraging the client to eat a greater variety of food; delaying the impulse to purge; breaking the association between eating and purging; building self-efficacy with respect to eating; identifying situations that lead to binge eating and developing other coping skills; and relaxation and stress management.

Question 19

Compare the four ways in which microbes are transmitted to people.

Answer 19

1. Direct transmission: Involves bodily contact, such as handshaking, kissing, and sexual intercourse. For example, genital herpes is generally contracted by direct transmission.
2. Indirect transmission: This kind occurs when microbes are passed to an individual via airborne particles, dust water, soil, or food. Influenza is an example of environmentally transmitted disease.
3. Biological transmission: Biological transmission occurs when a transmitting agent, such as a mosquito, picks up microbes, changes them into a form conducive to growth in the human body, and passes on the disease to the human. The transmission of yellow fever, for example, occurs by this method.
4. Mechanical transmission: This is the passage of a microbe to an individual by means of a carrier that is not directly involved in the disease process. Transmission of an infection by dirty hands, bad water, rats, mice, or flies are methods of mechanical transmission. Although mechanical and biological transmission are similar in that an organism such as an insect can be a transmitting agent, mechanical transmission differs in that the microbe is carried on the surface of the transmitting agent (e.g., a fly) as opposed to inside of the agent (e.g., a mosquito).

Question 20

obesity

Answer 20

An excessive accumulation of body fat, believed to contribute to a variety of health disorders, including cardiovascular disease.

Question 21

yo-yo dieting

Answer 21

The process of chronically alternative between dieting and regular eating, leading to successive weight gains and losses; over time, yo-yo dieters increase their chances of becoming obese by altering their underlying metabolism.

Question 22

set point of theory weight

Answer 22

The concept that each individual has an ideal biological weight that cannot be greatly modified.

Question 23

divisions of the nervous system: The peripheral nervous system is, itself, made up of two main components:

Answer 23

a. The somatic (or voluntary) nervous system connects nerve fibers to voluntary muscles and provides the brain with feedback in the form of sensory information about voluntary movement.
b. The autonomic (or involuntary) nervous system connects the central nervous system with all internal organs over which people do not customarily have control. This system can be divided into two distinct subsystems:
i. The sympathetic nervous system which prepares the body to respond to emergencies; to strong emotions, such as anger and fear, and to strenuous activity.
ii. The parasympathetic nervous system controls the activities of organs under normal circumstances and helps restore the body to a normal state.

Question 24

the central nervous system consists of

Answer 24

brain and spinal cord

Question 25

stomach

Answer 25

The stomach produces various gastric secretions, including pepsin and hydrochloric acid to further the digestive process, once the food passes through the esophagus by means of peristalsis, a unidirectional muscular movement toward the stomach.

Question 26

pancreas

Answer 26

As food progresses from the stomach to the duodenum (the intersection of the stomach and lower intestine), the pancreas becomes involved in the digestive process. Pancreatic juices, which are secreted into the duodenum, contain several enzymes that break down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. A critical function of the pancreas is the production of the hormone insulin, which facilitates the entry of glucose into the bodily tissues.

Question 27

liver

Answer 27

The liver also plays an important role in metabolism by producing bile, which enters the duodenum and helps break down fats. Bile is stored in the gallbladder and is secreted into the duodenum as needed.

Question 28

small intestine

Answer 28

The absorption of food takes place primarily in the small intestine, which produces enzymes that complete the breakdown of proteins to amino acids. The motility of the small intestine is under the control of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, such that parasympathetic activity speeds up metabolism, whereas sympathetic nervous system activity reduces it.

Question 29

large intestine

Answer 29

Food then passes into the large intestine (whose successive segments are known as the cecum and the ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid colon), which acts largely as a storage organ for the accumulation of food residue and helps in the reabsorption of water. The entry of feces into the rectum then brings about the urge to defecate, or expel, the solid waste from the body via the anus.

Question 30

Discuss the role of the spleen, tonsils and thymus gland in immunity.

Answer 30

• The spleen aids in the production of B cells and T cells and removes old red blood cells from the body. It also helps filter bacteria and is responsible for the storage and release of blood.
• The tonsils are patches of lymphoid tissue in the pharynx that filter out microorganisms that enter the respiratory tract.
• The thymus gland is responsible for helping T cells mature; it also produces a hormone, thymosin, which appears to stimulate T cells and lymph nodes to produce the plasma cells that, in turn, produce antibodies.

Question 31

Explain how nicotine interacts with neurotransmitters to enhance memory, mood, and, and the performance of basic tasks.

Answer 31

Nicotine alters levels of active neurotransmitters, including acetylcholine, norephinephrine, dopamine, endogenous opioids, and vasopressin. Nicotine may be used by smokers to engage these neurotransmitters because they produce temporary improvements in performance of affect. Specifically, acetylcholine, norephinephrine, and vasopressin appear to enhance memory, whereas acetylcholine and beta endorphins can reduce anxiety and tension. Alterations in dopamine, norepinephrine, and opioids improve mood, and people find that their performance on basic tasks is often improved when levels of acetylcholine and norephinephrine are high. Consequently, smoking among habitual smokers increases concentration, recall, alertness, arousal, psychomotor performance, and the ability to screen out irrelevant stimuli.

Question 32

Distinguish between Type I and Type II Diabetes.

Answer 32

Type I Diabetes is believed to be an autoimmune disorder, possibly precipitated by an early viral infection, and typically arises in late childhood or early adolescence. The immune system falsely identifies cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas as invaders and destroys those cells, compromising or eliminating their ability to produce insulin.

Type II Diabetes typically occurs after age 40 and is the more common form. Insulin may be produced by the body but there may not be enough of it or the body may not be sensitive to it. It is primarily a disease of lifestyle, involving a disturbance in glucose metabolism and the delicate balance between insulin production and insulin responsiveness. This balance appears to be affected adversely by a number of factors that include obesity and stress.

Question 33

Give examples of contingency contracting and cognitive restructuring.

Answer 33

• Contingency contracting is a procedure in which an individual forms a contract with another person specifying the rewards or punishment contingent upon the performance or non-performance of a target behavior. For example, a person who wanted to stop drinking might deposit a sum of money with a therapist and arrange to be fined each time he or she had a drink and to be rewarded each day that he or she abstained.
• Cognitive restructuring is a procedure for modifying internal monologues in stressful situations; clients are trained to monitor what they say to themselves and then to modify their self-talk. If a smoker’s urge to smoke is preceded by an internal monologue that she is weak and unable to control his smoking urges, these beliefs are targeted for change. The smoker would be trained to develop a more positive form of self-talk that would support her in her effort to quit smoking

Question 34

cognitive behavior therapy

Answer 34

The use of principles from learning theory to modify the cognitions and behaviors associated with a behavior to be modified; cognitive-behavioral approaches are used to modify poor health habits, such as smoking, poor diet, and alcoholism.

Question 35

self monitoring

Answer 35

Assessing the frequency, antecedents, and consequences of a target behavior to be modified; also known as self-observation.

Question 36

classical conditioning

Answer 36

The pairing of a stimulus with an unconditioned reflex, such that over time the new stimulus acquired a conditioned response, evoking the same behavior; the process by which an automatic response is conditioned to a new stimulus.

Question 37

operant conditioning

Answer 37

The pairing of a voluntary, non-automatic behavior to a new stimulus through reinforcement or punishment.

Question 38

modeling

Answer 38

Learning gained from observing another person performing a target behavior

Question 39

discriminative stimulus

Answer 39

An environmental stimulus that is capable of eliciting a particular behavior; for example, the sight of food may act as a discriminative stimulus for eating.

Question 40

stimulus control interventions

Answer 40

Interventions designed to modify behavior that involve the removal of discriminative stimuli that evoke a behavior targeted for change and the substitution of new discriminative stimuli that will evoke a desired behavior.

Question 41

self reinforcement

Answer 41

Systematically rewarding or punishing oneself to increase or decrease the occurrence of a target behavior.

Question 42

contingency contracting

Answer 42

A procedure in which an individual forms a contract with another person, such as a therapist, detailing what rewards or punishments are contingent on the performance or nonperformance of a target behavior.

Question 43

self control

Answer 43

A state in which an individual desiring to change behavior learns how to modify the antecedents and the consequences of that target behavior.

Question 44

cognitive restructuring

Answer 44

A method of modifying internal monologues in stress-producing situation; clients are trained to monitor what they say to themselves in stress-provoking situations and then to modify their cognitions in adaptive ways.

Question 45

self talk

Answer 45

Internal monologues; people tell themselves things that may undermine or help them implement appropriate health habits, such “I can stop smoking” (positive self-talk) or “I’ll never be able to do this” (negative self-talk).

Question 46

behavioral assignment

Answer 46

Home practice activities that clients perform on their own as part of an integrated therapeutic intervention for behavior modification.

Question 47

social skills (assertiveness) training

Answer 47

Techniques that teach people how to relax and interact comfortably in social situations; often a part of health-behavior modification programs, on the assumption that maladaptive health behaviors, such as alcohol consumption or smoking, may develop in part to control social anxiety.

Question 48

relaxation training

Answer 48

Procedures that help people relax; include progressive muscle relaxation and deep breathing; may also include guided imagery and forms of mediation or hypnosis.

Question 49

abstinence violation effect

Answer 49

A feeling of loss of control that results when one has violated self-imposed rules such as not to smoke or drink.

Question 50

relapse prevention

Answer 50

A set of techniques designed to keep people from relapsing to prior poor health habits after initial successful behavior modification; includes training in coping skills for high-risk-for-relapse situation and lifestyle rebalancing.

Question 51

lifestyle rebalancing

Answer 51

Concerted lifestyle change in a healthy direction, usually including exercise, stress management, and a healthy diet; believed to contribute to relapse prevention after successful modification of a poor health habit, such as smoking or alcohol consumption.

Question 52

Discuss the effects that the release of catecholamines can have on the body.

Answer 52

The release of catecholamines prompts a variety of important bodily changes. Heart rate increases, the heart’s capillaries dilate, and blood vessels constrict, increasing blood pressure. Blood is diverted into muscle tissue. Respiration rate goes up, and the amount of air flowing into the lungs is increased. Digestion and urination are generally decreased. The pupils of the eyes dilate, and sweat glands are stimulated to produce more sweat.

Question 53

Identify possible factors in the development of anorexia nervosa and bulimia.

Answer 53

Anorexia Nervosa: Genetic factors are clearly implicated, especially genes involving serotonin, dopamine, and estrogen systems. Interactions between genetic factors and risks in the environment, such as early exposure to stress, may also play a role. Hypothalamic abnormalities may be involved in both anorexia and bulimia, especially a hyperactive HPA axis, and evidence is mounting that both anorexia and bulimia may be tied to autoimmunity problems. Both women who have eating disorders and those who have tendencies towards eating disorders show high blood pressure and heart rate reactivity to stress and high urinary cortisol, suggesting that they may chronically overreact to stress. Women with eating disorders or tendencies toward them are more likely to be depressed, anxious, and low in self-esteem and to have a poor sense of mastery. Anorexic girls can come from families in which psychopathalogy or alcoholism is found or from families that are extremely close but have poor skills for communicating emotion or dealing with conflict.

Bulimia: Bingeing and purging may be a reaction to issues of control. The binge phase has been interpreted as an out-of-control reaction of the body to restore weight; the purge phase, an effort to regain control over weight. Women prone to bulimia, especially binge eating, appear to have a hyperactive HPA axis. What this means is that cortisol levels especially in response to stress may be elevated, promoting eating. Food can become a constant thought. Restrained eating, then, sets the stage for a binge. The control of eating shifts from internal sensations and is replaced by decisions about when and what to eat, which is called a cognitively based regulatory system. This regulatory system is easily disrupted by stress or distraction, and when it is, the dieter is vulnerable to bingeing. Families that place a high value on thinness and appearance are more likely to have bulimic daughters. Bulimia may have a genetic basis, inasmuch as eating disorders cluster in families and twin studies show a high concordance rate for binge eating. Bulimics may suffer from low self-esteem and eat impulsively to control their negative emotions. Girls and women with binge eating disorders appear to be characterized by an excessive concern with body and weight; a preoccupation with dieting; a history of depression, psychopathology, and alcohol or drug abuse; and difficulties with managing work and social settings. Stress, especially conflict with others, appears to be implicated in the onset of binge-purge cycles, because the cues that normally are used to restrain eating are less salient in times of stress. Physiological theories of bulimia include hormonal dysfunction, a hypothalamic dysfunction, food allergies or disordered taste responsivity, a disorder of the endogenous opioid system, a neurological disorder, and a combination of these.

Question 54

Identify the four phases of an infection and the three types of infections.

Answer 54

The four phases of infection are:

1. Incubation period: between the time the infection is contracted and the time the symptoms appear.
2. Period of nonspecific symptoms: when symptoms such as headaches and general discomfort may appear, before the full onset of disease. During this time, the microbes are actively colonizing and producing toxins.
3. The acute phase: when the disease and its symptoms are at their height.
4. Unless the infection proves fatal, a period of decline follows the acute phase. During this period, the organisms are expelled from the mouth and nose in saliva and respiratory secretions, as well as through the digestive tract and the genitourinary system in feces and urine.

The three types of infections are:

1. Localized infections: which remain at their original site and do not spread to other parts of the body.
2. Focal infections: which are confined to a particular area, sending toxins to other parts of the body and causing other disruptions.
3. Systematic infections: which affect a number of areas of body systems.

Question 55

Identify the work-site intervention that is most effective.

Answer 55

A number of weight-loss programs have been initiated through the work site, and a technique that has proven especially effective has been competition between work groups to see which group can lose the most weight and kept it off. It may be that team competitions are successful because they draw effectively on social support or that the arousal produced by a competitive spirit motivates people to work harder to maintain weight loss.

Question 56

Distinguish between alcoholism and alcohol abuse.

Answer 56

The term ‘alcoholic’ is usually reserved for someone who is physically addicted to alcohol. Alcoholics show withdrawal symptoms when they attempt to stop drinking, they have a high tolerance for alcohol, and they have little ability to control their drinking. Physiological dependence can be manifested in stereotypic drinking patterns (drinking certain alcoholic beverages in particular quantities at particular times of day), drinking that maintains blood alcohol at a particular level, the ability to function at a level that would incapacitate less tolerant drinkers, increased frequency and severity of withdrawal, early in the day and middle of night drinking, a sense of loss of control over drinking, and a subjective craving for alcohol.

Problem drinkers who engage in alcohol abuse may not have symptoms as severe as alcoholics, but they may have substantial social, psychological, and medical problems resulting from alcohol. Symptoms of alcohol abuse include difficult in performing one’s job because of alcohol consumption, inability to function well socially without alcohol, and legal difficulties encountered while drinking, such as drunk driving convictions.

Question 57

Discuss the five stages in the trans-theoretical model of behavior change.

Answer 57

1. Pre-contemplation: When a person has no intention of changing his or her behavior. Many individuals in this stage are not even aware that they have a problem, although families, friends, neighbors, or coworkers may well be. Sometimes people in this stage seek treatment, but typically they do so only if they have been pressure by others and feel themselves coerced into changing their behavior.
2. Contemplation: The person is aware that a problem exists and is thinking about it but has not yet made a commitment to take action. Many individuals remain in the contemplation stage for years, such as the smoker who knows he or she should stop but has not yet made the commitment to do so. Individuals in this stage are typically still weighing the pros and cons of changing their behavior, continuing to find the positive aspects of the behavior enjoyable.
3. Preparation: In this stage, the person intends to change a target behavior but has not yet begun to take action. In some cases, individuals have been unsuccessful in the past, or they may simply be delaying action until they can get through a certain event or stressful period of time. In other cases, individuals in the preparation stage have already modified the target behavior somewhat, such as smoking fewer cigarettes than usual, but have not yet made the commitment to eliminate the behavior altogether.
4. Action: This is the stage in which the individual modifies the target behavior to overcome a specific problem. Action requires the commitment of time and energy to making real behavior change. It includes stopping the behavior and modifying one’s lifestyle and environment so as to rid one’s life of cues associated with the behavior.
5. Maintenance: Working to prevent relapse and to consolidate the gains they have made. Typically, if a person is able to remain free of the addictive behavior for more than six months, s/he is assumed to be in the maintenance stage.

Question 58

Give examples of how social engineering has been used for behavior change.

Answer 58

Social engineering involves modifying the environment in order to change behavior. Examples include: seat belt laws, banning drugs, restrictions on smoking in public places, requiring vaccinations for children, lowering speed limits and raising the drinking age.

Question 59

Distinguish between the systole and diastole phases of the cardiac cycle:

Answer 59

The heart performs regular rhythmic phases of contraction and relaxation knows as the cardiac cycle. There are two phases in the cardiac cycle, systole and diastole. During systole, blood is pumped out of the heart, and blood pressure in the blood vessels increases. During diastole, blood pressure drops and blood is taken into the heart as the muscles of the heart relax.

Question 60

Describe the common disorders of the digestive system.

Answer 60

• Gastroenteritis: Gastroenteritis is an inflammation of the lining of the stomach and small intestine. It may be caused by such factors as excessive amounts of food or drink, contaminated food or water, or food poisoning. Symptoms appear approximately 2 to 4 hours after the ingestion of food; they include vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and nausea.
• Diarrhea: Diarrhea is characterized by watery and frequent bowel movements, occurs when the lining of the small and large intestines cannot properly absorb water or digested food. Chronic diarrhea may result in serious disturbances of fluid and electrolyte (sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium) balance.
• Dysentery: Dysentery is similar to diarrhea except that mucus, pus, and blood are also excreted. It may be caused by a protozoan that attacks the large intestine (amoebic dysentery) or by a bacterial organism.
• Peptic Ulcer: A peptic ulcer is an open sore in the lining of the stomach or the duodenum. It results from the hyper-secretion of hydrochloric acid and occurs when pepsin, a protein-digesting enzyme secreted in the stomach, digests a portion of the stomach wall or duodenum. A bacterium called H. pylori is believed to contribute to the development of many ulcers.
• Gallstones: When gallstones (made up of a combination of cholesterol, calcium, bilirubin, and inorganic cells) move into the duct of the gallbladder, they may cause painful spasms; such stones must often removed surgically. Infection and inflammation of the gallbladder is called cholecystitis and may be a precondition for gallstones.
• Appendicitis: Appendicitis is a common condition that occurs when wastes and bacteria accumulate in the appendix. If the small opening of the appendix becomes obstructed, bacteria can easily proliferate. Soon this condition gives rise to pain, increased peristalsis, and nausea. If the appendix ruptures and the bacteria are released into the abdominal cavity or peritoneum, they can cause further infection (peritonitis) or even death.
• Hepatitis: The term “hepatitis” means inflammation of the liver, and the disease produces swelling, tenderness, and sometimes permanent damage; it is a common, serious, contagious disease. When the liver is inflamed, bilirubin, a product of the breakdown of hemoglobin, cannot easily pass into the bile ducts. Consequently, it remains in the blood, causing a yellowing of the skin known as jaundice. Other common symptoms are fatigue, fever, muscle, or joint aches, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, abdominal pain, and sometimes diarrhea. There are several types of hepatitis, which differ in severity and mode of transmission.
o Hepatitis A: This disorder is caused by viruses, and typically transmitted through food and water. It is often spread by poorly cooked seafood or through unsanitary preparation or storage of food.
o Hepatitis B: Also known as serum hepatitis, it is caused by a virus and is transmitted by the transfusion of infected blood, by improperly sterilized needles, through sexual contact, and through mother-to-infant contact. Its symptoms are similar to Hepatitis A, but far more serious.
o Hepatitis C: This disease is also spread via blood and needles, and is most commonly caused by blood transfusions; more than 1.6% of Americans are infected.
o Hepatitis D: Is found mainly in intravenous drug users who are also carriers of hepatitis B, necessary for the hepatitis D virus to spread.
o Hepatitis E: This type of hepatitis resembles hepatitis A, but is caused by a different virus.

Question 61

immunity

Answer 61

The body’s resistance to injury from invading organisms, acquired from the mother at birth, through disease, or through vaccinations and inoculations.

Question 62

specific immune mechanism

Answer 62

Responses designed to respond to specific invaders; includes cell-mediated and humoral immunity.

Question 63

nonspecific immune mechanism

Answer 63

A set of responses to infection or a disorder that is engaged by the presence of a biological invader.

Question 64

phagocytosis

Answer 64

The process by which phagocytes ingest and attempt to eliminate a foreign invader.

Question 65

humoral immunity

Answer 65

A fast-acting immunologic reaction mediated by B lymphocytes that secret antibodies into the bloodstream; effective in defending against bacterial infections and viral infections that have not yet invaded the cells.

Question 66

cell-mediated immunity

Answer 66

A slow-acting immunologic reaction involoving T lymphocytes from the thymus gland-effective in defending against viral infections that have invaded the cells, fungi, parasites, foreign tissues, and cancer.

Question 67

lymphatic system

Answer 67

The drainage system of the body; believed to be involved in immune functioning.

Question 68

autoimmunity

Answer 68

A condition in which the body produces an immune response against its own tissue constituents.

Question 69

Distinguish between Type I and Type II Diabetes.

Answer 69

Type I Diabetes is believed to be an autoimmune disorder, possibly precipitated by an early viral infection, and typically arises in late childhood or early adolescence. The immune system falsely identifies cells in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas as invaders and destroys those cells, compromising or eliminating their ability to produce insulin.

Type II Diabetes typically occurs after age 40 and is the more common form. Insulin may be produced by the body but there may not be enough of it or the body may not be sensitive to it. It is primarily a disease of lifestyle, involving a disturbance in glucose metabolism and the delicate balance between insulin production and insulin responsiveness. This balance appears to be affected adversely by a number of factors that include obesity and stress.

Question 70

Identify the traits of smokers who quit on their own.

Answer 70

Smokers who quit on their own have good self-control, confidence in their ability to quit, a clear perception of the health benefits associated with quitting, and strong social support. They also tend to be light smokers.

Question 71

Identify the liabilities and shortcomings of the biomedical model.

Answer 71

• Reductionist and single-factor model of illness: It reduces illnesses to low-level processes, such as disordered cells and chemical imbalances, rather than recognizing that a variety of factors, only some of which are biological, may be responsible for the development of an illness.
• Emphasis on illness: Focuses on aberrations that lead to illness rather than on the conditions that might promote health.
• Difficulty accounting for why a particular set of somatic conditions does not always lead to an illness: For example, if six people are exposed to measles, why do only three develop the disease?

Question 72

Describe the common disorders of the respiratory system

Answer 72

• Asphyxia: A condition of oxygen lack and carbon dioxide excess, may occur when there is a respiratory obstruction, when breathing occurs in a confined space so that expired air is re-inhaled, or when respiration is insufficient for the body’s needs. Asphyxia increases respiratory activity.
• Anoxia: A disorder which is caused by a shortage of oxygen. People suffering from anoxia may rapidly become disoriented, lose all sense of danger, and pass into a coma without increasing their breathing.
• Hyperventilation: A disorder which disrupts the carbon dioxide-oxygen balance. Cause blood vessels to constrict and reduce blood flow to the brain. As a result, the individual may experience impaired vision, difficulty in thinking clearly, and dizziness.
• Hay Fever: A seasonal allergic reaction to foreign bodies, including pollens, dust, and other airborne allergens, that enter the lungs. These irritants prompt the body to produce substances called histamines, which cause the capillaries of the lungs to become inflamed and to released large amounts of fluid.
• Asthma: A more severe allergic reaction, which can be caused by a variety of foreign substances, including dust, dog or cat dander, pollens, and fungi. These attacks may be so serious that they produce bronchial spasms and hyperventilation.
• Common cold: A viral infection of the upper and sometimes lower respiratory tract. The infection that results causes discomfort, congestion, and excessive secretion of mucus.
• Influenza: Flu viruses attack the lining of the respiratory tract, killing healthy cells. Fever and inflammation of the respiratory tract may result.
• Bronchitis: A viral infection that is an inflammation of the mucosal membrane inside the bronchi of the lungs. Large amounts of mucus are produced, leading to persistent coughing.
• Strep throat: A bacterial infection of the throat and soft palate, which is characterized by edema (swelling) and reddening.
• Whooping cough: An infection which invades the upper respiratory tract and moves down to the trachea and bronchi. The associated bacterial growth leads to the production of a viscous fluid, which the body attempts to expel through violent coughing.
• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A disease that is comprised of mainly two familiar disorders, chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Pulmonary emphysema involves a persistent obstruction of the flow of air. It occurs when the alveoli become dilated, atrophied, and thin, so that they lose their elasticity and cannot constrict during exhalation. As a result, exhalation becomes difficult and forced, so that carbon dioxide is not readily eliminated.
• Pneumonia: The disease if broken down to two main types.
o Lobar pneumonia is a primary infection of the entire lobe of a lung. The alveoli become inflamed, and the normal oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange between the blood and alveoli can be disrupted.
o Bronchial pneumonia, which is confined to the bronchi, is typically a secondary infection that may occur as a complication of other disorders, such as a severe cold or flu.
• Tuberculosis: An infectious disease caused by bacteria that invade lung tissue. When the invading bacilli are surrounded by macrophages (white blood cells), they form a clump called a tubercle, which is the typical manifestation of this disease. Eventually, cavities in the lung form which give rise to permanent scar tissue, causing chronic difficulties in oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange between the blood and the alveoli.
• Pleurisy: An infection that causes an inflammation of the pleura, the membrane that surrounds the organs in the thoracic cavity. The inflammation, which produces a sticky fluid, is usually a consequence of pneumonia or tuberculosis and can be extremely painful.
• Lung cancer: A disease caused by smoking, environmental carcinogens (air pollution) or cancer-causing substances encountered in the workplace. The affected cells in the lungs begin to divide in a rapid and unrestricted manner, producing a tumor. Malignant cells grow faster than healthy cells, they crows out the health cells and rob them of nutrients, causing them to die, and then spread into surrounding tissue.

Question 73

Discuss the two factors that determine whether or not a person will practice a specific health behavior, according to the health belief model.

Answer 73

1. Perceiving a personal health threat. The perception of a personal health threat in influenced by at least three factors: general health values, which include interest and concern about health; specific beliefs about personal vulnerability to a particular disorder, and beliefs about the consequences of the disorder, such as whether or not they are serious. Thus, for example, people may change their diet to include low-cholesterol foods if they value health, fell threatened by the possibility of heart disease, and perceive that the threat of heart disease is severe.
2. Believing that particular health practice will be effective in reducing that threat

Question 74

Identify the main advantages of nicotine patches over nicotine gum.

Answer 74

Nicotine patches release nicotine in steady doses into the bloodstream. Because of this, patches produce better rates of compliance. Also, smokers do not like chewing nicotine gum, in part because nicotine is absorbed rather slowly through this method.

Question 75

Name four areas of focus of health psychology.

Answer 75

1. Health promotion and maintenance: The development of good health habits and helping people overcome bad habits.
2. Prevention and treatment of illness: Helping manage stress effectively and helping ill people adhere and adjust more successfully to their illness.
3. Etiology and correlates of health, illness, and dysfunction: The origins or causes of illness such as behavioral and social factors
4. The health care system and the formulation of health policy: The impact of health institutions and health professionals on people’s behavior

Question 76

List the beneficial effects of moderate drinking.

Answer 76

Moderate alcohol intake (approximately one to two drinks a day) appears to: reduce the risk of experiencing and dying from a heart attack; lower blood pressure; lessen the thickening of the arteries; reduce the risk of heart failure; increase high-density lipoprotein (HDL) levels; and decreases the chance of stroke among the elderly