Unit 1 Flashcards

Question

Francesco Petrarch

Answer 1

Often called the "Father of Humanism" Petrarch was an Italian scholar and poet who revived interest in the classical works of ancient Rome and Greece. His writings helped to lay the foundation for Renaissance humanism.

Answer 2

A term coined by Petrarch to describe the period between the fall of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Renaissance. He viewed this era as a time of cultural decline and ignorance, in contrast to the "light" of classical antiquity.

Answer 3

An Italian philosopher who wrote this famous work, often considered the "Manifesto of the Renaissance." Pico argued that humans have the unique ability to shape their own destiny through knowledge and free will.

Answer 4

An informal group of scholars in Florence who studied and discussed the works of Plato and other ancient philosophers. Supported by the Medici family, the academy was influential in the development of Renaissance Neoplatonism.

Answer 5

A philosophical movement that sought to blend the ideas of Plato with Christian thought. Neoplatonists believed in the existence of a single, transcendent source of all goodness and truth, influencing Renaissance art and literature.

Answer 6

Renaissance thinkers who applied humanist principles to public life and politics. Civic humanists believed that individuals should use their knowledge and talents to contribute to the community and improve society.

Answer 7

An Italian diplomat and author who wrote The Book of the Courtier, a guide to the qualities and behaviors expected of a Renaissance noble. The work became highly influential in shaping the ideals of Renaissance aristocracy.

Answer 8

An Italian humanist and scholar known for his critical analysis of historical texts. Valla work, including his exposure of the Donation of Constantine as a forgery, demonstrated the power of humanist scholarship in challenging traditional authority.

Answer 9

An Italian humanist, historian, and statesman who is often credited with developing the concept of civic humanism. Bruni's writings emphasized the importance of active participation in public life and the study of history for understanding human nature.

Answer 10

A French-Italian author and one of the first female professional writers in Europe. Christine de Pisan is best known for her works defending women and promoting their education, including The Book of the City of Ladies.

Answer 11

An architect and engineer who is best known for designing the dome of the Florence Cathedral. Brunelleschi is often credited with developing linear perspective in art, a technique that allowed artists to create more realistic, three- dimensional spaces.

Answer 12

A technique of mural painting executed upon freshly laid lime plaster. The pigments used are mixed with water and applied to the wet plaster, becoming part of the wall surface as the plaster dries, which preserves the artwork for centuries.

Answer 13

An artistic technique that uses strong contrasts between light and dark to give the illusion of depth and volume in two-dimensional art. It was widely used by Renaissance artists to create more lifelike images.

Answer 14

A method of creating the illusion of depth on a flat surface, where all lines in a drawing or painting converge at a single point on the horizon. This technique became a fundamental tool for Renaissance artists to achieve realistic compositions.

Answer 15

The period of the Renaissance typically dated from the late 15th century to the early 16th century, marked by the peak of artistic achievements in Italy. It is characterized by the works of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael.

Answer 16

An artistic style that emerged in the later years of the High Renaissance. Mannerism is characterized by exaggerated proportions, distorted perspectives, and complex compositions, often with a focus on elegance and artificiality.

Answer 17

A master of the High Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci was a painter, scientist, and inventor. His painting Mona Lisa is one of the most famous works of art in the world, known for its mysterious expression and use of sfumato technique.

Answer 18

Raphael was an Italian painter and architect known for his clarity of form and composition. The School of Athens, a fresco in the Vatican, depicts an idealized gathering of ancient philosophers and symbolizes the marriage of art, philosophy, and science during the Renaissance.

Answer 19

Michelangelo was an Italian sculptor, painter, and architect. His sculpture David represents the ideal human form, while his work on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, particularly The Creation of Adam, is a masterpiece of Renaissance art.

Answer 20

Pope from 1503 to 1513, Julius II was a significant patron of the arts during the High Renaissance. He commissioned many of Michelangelo works, including the Sistine Chapel ceiling, and Raphael's frescoes in the Vatican.

Answer 21

Thinkers of the Northern Renaissance who combined humanist ideals with Christian beliefs. They sought to reform society and the Church by emphasizing the importance of education and moral living according to Christian principles.

Answer 22

A leading Christian humanist, Erasmus wrote Adages, a collection of Greek and Latin proverbs, and In Praise of Folly, a satirical critique of the Catholic Church and society. His works promoted the reform of the Church through education and moral improvement.

Answer 23

An English humanist and statesman, More wrote Utopia, a book describing an ideal society based on reason and equality. Utopia reflects critiques of contemporary society and his ideas for social reform.

Answer 24

A German painter, printmaker, and theorist of the Northern Renaissance. Dürer is known for his detailed woodcuts, engravings, and paintings that combined Northern European artistic traditions with Italian Renaissance techniques.

Answer 25

An English poet and author, Chaucer is best known for The Canterbury Tales, a collection of stories told by pilgrims traveling to Canterbury. The work provides a vivid portrayal of English society in the late Middle Ages.

Answer 26

An Italian writer and poet, Boccaccio wrote The Decameron, a collection of 100 tales told by a group of young people sheltering from the Black Death. The work is a masterpiece of classical Italian prose and reflects the humanist values of the Renaissance.

Answer 27

A period in English history during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, marked by a flowering of English literature and culture. This era produced some of the greatest works in English drama and poetry, including those by William Shakespeare.

Answer 28

An English playwright and poet of the Elizabethan era, Marlowe is known for his blank verse and dramatic works, including Doctor Faustus. He was a contemporary of Shakespeare and influenced the development of English drama.

Answer 29

An English playwright, poet, and actor, Jonson was a contemporary of Shakespeare and is known for his satirical plays, including Volpone and The Alchemist. His work contributed to the development of English literature and comedy.

Answer 30

The most famous playwright of the English Renaissance, Shakespeare wrote Hamlet and King Lear, two of his most celebrated tragedies. His works explore the complexities of human nature and continue to be studied and performed worldwide.

Answer 31

A German inventor who developed the printing press in the mid-15th century. Gutenberg's invention revolutionized the production of books, making literature and knowledge more accessible and helping to spread Renaissance ideas across Europe.

Answer 32

Political entities characterized by a defined territory, centralized government, and a sense of shared identity among the people. The development of nation-states during the Renaissance and early modern period laid the foundation for the modern state system.

Answer 33

The process of creating a system of government in which state officials, rather than elected representatives, manage the administration. Bureaucratization became increasingly common in monarchial states during the Renaissance, leading to more efficient governance.

Answer 34

A military force composed of professional soldiers hired to serve in a foreign army. During the Renaissance, many monarchs relied on mercenary armies to fight wars, as they were often more reliable and better trained than feudal levies.

Answer 35

A 1454 agreement between Milan, Naples, and Florence that established a balance of power in Italy and created a period of relative peace among the Italian city-states. The treaty helped to prevent outside intervention in Italian affairs.

Answer 36

King of France who invaded Italy in 1494, beginning the Italian Wars. His campaign aimed to claim the Kingdom of Naples but led to widespread conflict and the involvement of other European powers in Italian affairs.

Answer 37

Duke of Milan who invited the French king Charles VIII to invade Italy, leading to the Italian Wars. Ludovico's actions ultimately weakened Milan and contributed to the decline of the Italian city-states independence.

Answer 38

An Italian Dominican friar who preached against the corruption of the Church and the secularism of the Renaissance. Savonarola briefly ruled Florence after the overthrow of the Medici but was eventually executed for heresy.

Answer 39

An Italian diplomat, philosopher, and writer best known for The Prince, a political treatise that offers advice on how rulers can maintain power through cunning, pragmatism, and ruthlessness. Machiavelli's work is often seen as a foundational text in political theory.

Answer 40

A series of civil wars in England between the House of Lancaster and the House of York, two rival branches of the royal family. The wars, which took place between 1455 and 1487, ultimately led to the rise of the Tudor dynasty.

Answer 41

The founder of the Tudor dynasty, Henry VII became king after defeating Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. His reign marked the end of the Wars of the Roses and the beginning of a period of stability in England.

Answer 42

The royal family that ruled England from 1485 to 1603, starting with Henry VII. The Tudor dynasty is known for its strong monarchs, including Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, and for its role in the English Reformation.

Answer 43

The daughter of Henry VIII, Elizabeth I ruled England from 1558 to 1603. Known as the "Virgin Queen" because she never married, Elizabeth's reign was marked by the defeat of the Spanish Armada and the flourishing of English culture during the Elizabethan Renaissance.

Answer 44

A Catholic relative of Elizabeth I who was seen as a legitimate heir to the English throne by some. Mary was executed by Elizabeth in 1587 after being implicated in plots to overthrow her, deepening the religious and political tensions of the time.

Answer 45

King of Aragon who married Isabella of Castile, uniting Spain under their rule. Ferdinand and Isabella's reign marked the beginning of Spain's rise as a major European power, including the completion of the Reconquista and the funding of Christopher Columbus's voyages.

Answer 46

Queen of Castile who, along with her husband Ferdinand, unified Spain and established the Spanish Inquisition. Isabella was a devout Catholic and played a key role in sponsoring Christopher Columbus's voyages, which led to the discovery of the New World.

Answer 47

A powerful institution established by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1478 to enforce Catholic orthodoxy within their realms. The Inquisition was notorious for its use of torture and persecution of Jews, Muslims, and other non-Catholics.

Answer 48

Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain during the 16th century. Charles V ruled over a vast empire that included Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and much of the Americas. His reign was marked by wars with France, the Ottoman Empire, and the Protestant Reformation.

Answer 49

The son of Charles V and King of Spain from 1556 to 1598. Philip II was a staunch defender of Catholicism and led Spain during its Golden Age. His reign included the defeat of the Spanish Armada by England in 1588 and conflicts with the Netherlands and France.

Answer 50

A naval battle in 1571 in which a coalition of Catholic states led by Spain defeated the Ottoman Empire's fleet. The battle marked a turning point in the struggle between Christian Europe and the Muslim Ottoman Empire for control of the Mediterranean.

Answer 51

Also known as the Council of Blood, this was a special court established by the Duke of Alba in the Spanish Netherlands to suppress Protestantism and rebellion. The council's harsh measures intensified resistance to Spanish rule, leading to the Eighty Years' ; War.

Answer 52

A Spanish nobleman and military leader, Don Juan of Austria was the half- brother of Philip II. He commanded the Christian fleet at the Battle of Lepanto and later served as governor of the Spanish Netherlands during the Dutch Revolt.

Answer 53

A fleet sent by Philip II in 1588 to invade England and overthrow Queen Elizabeth I. The Armada's defeat by the English navy marked the decline of Spain's maritime power and the rise of England as a dominant naval force.

Answer 54

Miguel de Cervantes was a Spanish writer best known for his novel Don Quixote, which is considered one of the greatest works of literature. Don Quixote is a satire of chivalric romance and explores themes of reality, illusion, and idealism.

Answer 55

A Greek painter who spent much of his career in Spain, El Greco is known for his distinctive style that combined elements of the Byzantine tradition with Western painting. His works, such as The Burial of the Count of Orgaz, are characterized by elongated figures, dramatic lighting, and expressive emotion.

Answer 56

King of France from 1515 to 1547, Francis I was a Renaissance monarch known for his patronage of the arts and his rivalry with Charles V. His reign saw the strengthening of the French monarchy and significant cultural achievements.

Answer 57

A series of conflicts from 1562 to 1598 between Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants) in France. The wars were marked by brutal massacres, political intrigue, and shifts in power, eventually leading to the Edict of Nantes, which granted religious tolerance to the Huguenots.

Answer 58

French Protestants influenced by the teachings of John Calvin. The Huguenots faced severe persecution during the French Wars of Religion and were often involved in political struggles against the Catholic monarchy.

Answer 59

An Italian-born queen of France and the wife of King Henry II. As the mother of three French kings, she was a powerful political figure during the French Wars of Religion and played a key role in the events leading up to the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre.

Answer 60

A powerful Catholic noble family in France that played a leading role in the French Wars of Religion. The Guises were staunch opponents of the Huguenots and sought to maintain Catholic dominance in France.

Answer 61

A Huguenot leader and close advisor to King Charles IX of France. Coligny was a key figure in the French Wars of Religion and was assassinated during the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, which triggered widespread violence against Huguenots.

Answer 62

A prominent Huguenot leader during the French Wars of Religion, Louis I de Bourbon, Prince of Condé, was a military commander who fought against the Catholic forces led by the Guises.

Answer 63

The leader of the Huguenots and a key figure in the French Wars of Religion, Henry of Navarre became King Henry IV of France. He converted to Catholicism to secure his throne and issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598, granting religious tolerance to Huguenots.

Answer 64

A violent attack on Huguenots in Paris on August 24, 1572, which spread throughout France. The massacre was orchestrated by the Catholic monarchy and resulted in the deaths of thousands of Huguenots, deepening the religious divide in the country.

Answer 65

A Portuguese prince who played a leading role in the early days of the Age of Exploration. He sponsored voyages along the west coast of Africa and helped to establish Portugal as a major maritime power.

Answer 66

A Portuguese explorer who in 1488 became the first European to sail around the southern tip of Africa, later named the Cape of Good Hope. His voyage opened the way for a sea route to Asia.

Answer 67

The southernmost point of Africa, first rounded by Bartholomew Dias in 1488. The discovery of this route was crucial for establishing direct maritime trade between Europe and Asia.

Answer 68

A Portuguese explorer who was the first European to reach India by sea, sailing around the Cape of Good Hope in 1498. Vasco da Gama's voyage established a direct maritime route between Europe and Asia, boosting Portugal's wealth and power.

Answer 69

An Italian explorer sponsored by Spain who completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, opening the way for European exploration and colonization of the Americas. Columbus is credited with discovering the New World in 1492.

Answer 70

A Portuguese explorer who led the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe. Although Magellan was killed in the Philippines, his fleet completed the journey, proving that the Earth is round and that there are multiple sea routes to Asia.

Answer 71

A Spanish conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire in Mexico. Cortés's conquest of the Aztecs brought vast territories and wealth to Spain.

Answer 72

A powerful Mesoamerican empire based in central Mexico, known for its advanced civilization, complex society, and impressive architectural achievements. The empire was conquered by Hernán Cortés and his forces in 1521.

Answer 73

The capital of the Aztec Empire, located on an island in Lake Texcoco in what is now Mexico City. Tenochtitlán was a large and sophisticated city, famous for its temples, canals, and marketplaces.

Answer 74

A vast and highly organized empire in the Andes Mountains of South America, known for its advanced agriculture, engineering, and social structure. The Inca Empire was conquered by Francisco Pizarro and the Spanish in the 1530s.

Answer 75

A Spanish conquistador who led the expedition that conquered the Inca Empire in Peru. Pizarro's conquest brought enormous wealth to Spain and expanded its territories in the Americas.

Answer 76

A labor system in the Spanish colonies of the Americas where Spanish settlers were granted the right to extract labor and tribute from the indigenous population. In exchange, the settlers were supposed to protect and Christianize the native people, though the system often led to severe exploitation.

Answer 77

A navigation instrument that shows direction relative to the Earth's magnetic poles. The magnetic compass was crucial for the voyages of exploration during the Age of Discovery, allowing sailors to navigate more accurately across open seas.

Answer 78

A navigation tool used to measure the angle between two visible objects, such as the horizon and a celestial body. The sextant was essential for determining a ship's latitude and was widely used by sailors during the Age of Exploration.

Answer 79

A type of map projection introduced by Gerardus Mercator in 1569, which presents a flat representation of the Earth. The Mercator projection was particularly useful for navigation because it preserves angles and directions, making it easier for sailors to chart a course.

Answer 80

A small, highly maneuverable sailing ship developed by the Portuguese in the 15th century. Caravels were used for exploration during the Age of Discovery, and their design allowed for long-distance voyages along the African coast and across the Atlantic Ocean.

Answer 81

The widespread exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Americas (New World) and Europe, Africa, and Asia (Old World) following the voyages of Christopher Columbus. The Columbian Exchange had profound effects on the global economy, agriculture, and population.