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Unit 1 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is inductive reasoning?

A

A type of reasoning where a generalization is derived from a large number of observations.

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2
Q

What is deductive reasoning?

A

A type of reasoning where a conclusion is drawn not from experimentation, but from a set of premises that may or may not be true.

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3
Q

What is the data range?

A

It represents the spread of the data (Max and min boundaries)

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4
Q

How is variance calculated

A

sum for all elements:
(e-m)^2/n

e= individual element
n=total number of elements
m=average

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5
Q

How is standard deviation calculated?

A

sqrt(variance)

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6
Q

What happens to standard deviation as the sample size increases?

A

It usually decreases

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7
Q

What are the 5 common themes of life?

A

Organization, transfer of energy and matter, interactions, evolution and information transfer.

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8
Q

Why is water such an important compound to life?

A

It is a polar compound that dissolves all other polar compounds (great solvant). It has lower density when solid than when liquid. It has electromagnetic cohesive and adhesive forces.

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9
Q

What buffer is used in the human body to keep the right pH?

A

Carbonic acid.

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10
Q

What are polymers?

A

They are complex molecules of repeating sequences which we call monomers

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11
Q

How is carbonic acid maintained in the blood when it is tuned in H2CO3

A

The body expels CO2 through breathing and H+ ions through urine which helps it turn the H2CO3 back into HCO3

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12
Q

How are carbohydrates held together?

A

Through glycosidic bonds.

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13
Q

What is the body’s main source of energy?

A

Carbohydrates

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14
Q

What is the defining characteristic of lipids?

A

They are hydrophobic (non-polar)

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15
Q

What is the defining characteristic of carbohydrates?

A

They always come in a ratio of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen of 1:2:1

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16
Q

What are some uses for lipids in the human body?

A

Making up the cell membrane and used as signalling molecules.

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17
Q

What is the defining characteristic of proteins?

A

They are composed of amino acids.

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18
Q

What type of bond unites polymers?

A

Covalent bonds

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19
Q

What are some protein functions?

A

They serve as catalysts, signalling molecules, information storage, as tools for motor movement and many more.

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20
Q

Are proteins polar?

A

They can be. but are not forced to be

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21
Q

What are the monomers of polysaccharides?

A

Monosaccharides

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22
Q

Between which carbons do hydrolysis and dehydration reactions occur in polysaccharides?

A

The 1rt and 4rth or the 1rt and the 6th carbon

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23
Q

What type of glucose can be used by humans?

A

Alpha glucose

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24
Q

Which reaction results in the unification of two monomers and gives a molecule of water?

A

Dehydration reaction

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25
Q

What are the two most common forms of glucose chains that are used for mechanical support? What type of glucose is used?

A

Chitin and cellulose. Beta glucose.

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26
Q

What type of glucose composes the polymer used for energy storage in animals? What is its name? What type of glucose composes the polymer used for energy storage in plants? What is its name?

A

Alpha glucose. Glycogen.

Alpha glucose. Starch.

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27
Q

What is the difference between amylose and amylopectin?

A

Amylose is a long chain of alpha glucose only connected through alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds which gives it a linear form. Whereas amylopectin is connected through alpha 1-4 and alpha 1-6 bonds which gives it a branched appearance.

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28
Q

What type of bond can amylase break?

A

It can catalyse the hydrolysis reaction between alpha 1-4 bonds in polymers. (can only do do at the edges of the molecule)

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29
Q

When will sugars assume a ring configuration?

A

When they are placed in a solution

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30
Q

How are sugars named?

A

They are labeled by the number of carbon atoms they possess.

5=pentose, 6=hextose and so forth

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31
Q

What is the difference between the alpha and beta isomers of glucose?

A

The alpha glucose has a hydroxyl group at the bottom of the 1rst carbon whereas the beta glucose has the hydroxyl group at the top of the 1rst carbon.

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32
Q

What is the main difference between glucose and galactose?

A

Glucose has a hydroxyl group at the top of its 4rth carbon whereas glucose has its hydroxyl group at the bottom of its 4rth carbon.

see image: https://images.app.goo.gl/5ppk2Co4jzC7HnG78

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33
Q

What differentiates fructose from galactose and glucose?

A

It is a pentose sugar whereas glucose and galactose and hexose.

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34
Q

Which sugar is the main fuel for the formation of ATP

A

Glucose

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35
Q

What are disaccharides? Name three disaccharides and their composition.

A

Regroupement of 2 monosaccharide units bound by a glycosidic bond.

1) Sucrose: Glucose+Fructose
2) Lactose: Galactose+Glucose (non digérable pour les atteints comme Émile)
3) Maltose: Glucose+Glucose

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36
Q

Where is glycogen stored in the human body?

A

In the hepatocytes in the liver (can be broken down and released into the blood as glucose)

In the muscles (only for muscle cell consumption)

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37
Q

What hormone orders the break down glycogen?

A

Glucagon

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38
Q

What particularity does chitin have that makes it recognizable?

A

It has an N-Acetyl group on its second carbon. It is also made up of beta glucose.

See image: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fbiologywise.com%2Fchitin-structure-function-uses&psig=AOvVaw3ivQd5ajiMB9X7Dicznkm_&ust=1715919320537000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBIQjRxqFwoTCMCYieinkYYDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAE

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39
Q

What is the enzyme that can break down chitin?

A

Chitase

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40
Q

What does chitin make up in certain organisms?

A

It makes up the cell wall of fungi and the exoskeleton of arthropods

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41
Q

What is a particularity that makes cellulose recognizable?

A

Very linear strand of beta glucose linked via glycosidic bonds.

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42
Q

What is cellulose used for in organisms?

A

It makes up the cell wall of plants.

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43
Q

Which enzyme can break down cellulose?

A

Cellulase

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44
Q

What makes lipids different from proteins and polysaccharides?

A

They are not made up of repeating monomers

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45
Q

What are some functions served by neutral fats?

A

Thermoregulation, energy storage and protection.

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46
Q

What are neutral fats made of

A

Of a glycerol molecule and a fatty acid.

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47
Q

Which group attaches itself to the glycerol molecule via a dehydration reaction?

A

The carboxyl group

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48
Q

How many molecules of water are needed to hydrolise a triglyceride?

A

3

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49
Q

What is the maximal amount of fatty acids that can be stored on a glycerol?

A

3

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50
Q

Where are triglycerides stored?

A

In our adipose tissue

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51
Q

What differentiates the appearance of a fatty acid to one of a glucose molecule

A

The fatty acid does not have hydroxyl groups attached to its carbon atoms. It only has hydrogen attached to them.

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52
Q

What is a saturated fat?

A

A fatty acid that has the maximal amount of hydrogens bound to each of its carbon atoms.

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53
Q

What is an unsaturated fat?

A

A fatty acid that does not have the maximal amount of hydrogens bound to each of its carbon atoms.

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54
Q

What is the noticeable difference in appearance of a saturated fatty acid compared to a unsaturated fatty acid?

A

A saturated fatty acid is straightened only has single carbon bonds whereas an unsaturated fatty acid is slightly bent and has double carbon bonds at the place(s) of the bend(s).

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55
Q

Which fatty acid is liquid at room temperature. Why?

A

Unsaturated fatty acids as they have less interactions because of their bent shape.

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56
Q

What makes up phospholipids?

A

One glycerol molecule, one polar head group and two fatty acids

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57
Q

What is an amphipathic molecule?

A

A molecule that has a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic part.

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58
Q

Why is the amphipathic characteristic of the phospholipid important for its function?

A

It permits it to assemble in a bilayer in the cell membrane, as the polar head group faces up and the non polar head group faces down. (one wants to be far from the other, the other wants to be close)

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59
Q

Where are steroids found in our body?

A

They are mostly found in our cell
membrane and in our blood

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60
Q

What are some important compounds that are steroids?

A

Vitamin D, Testosterone, Estrogens, cholesterol.

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61
Q

Can steroids assemble as polymers?

A

NO NEVER

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62
Q

What is the common structure to all steroids?

A

The sterol structure which possesses 17 Carbon atoms and has the molecular formula: C17H28O. Steroids will vary by the other attachements that are stuck to this structure.

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63
Q

How is the sterol molecule easily identified?

A

It has 3 hexagons and one pentagon that share one side with their neighbour.

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64
Q

What are enzymes?

A

They are biological catalysts that serve to accelerate reaction time of certain mechanisms.

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65
Q

What are the molecules can be used as enzymes in the body?

A

Proteins (+bonus point for RNA)

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66
Q

What are two examples of important enzymes in our bodies and what do they do?

A

Carbonic Anhydrase: It is an enzyme in our red blood cells that creates Carbonic acid from water and carbon dioxide.

Sucrase: It is an enzyme on our intestine walls that catalyses the hydrolysis of sucrose.

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67
Q

What are the monomers that make up proteins and how many are there?

A

Amino acids, 20 of them.

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68
Q

What are the groups that every amino acid possesses and around which compound are they centred?

A

They all possess an amino group, a carboxyl group and an R group that are centred around the alpha carbon.

See image: https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reagent.co.uk%2Fblog%2Fwhat-are-amino-acids%2F&psig=AOvVaw0iQRnT33KaxDcX28_UvD9D&ust=1715953407711000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBIQjRxqFwoTCKDSnt-mkoYDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAE

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69
Q

Which group varies in amino acids?

A

The R group

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70
Q

How are radical groups categorized?

A

They are categorized as hydrophobic, acidic, basic, polar and special.

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71
Q

What is the name of the bonds between amino-acid monomers?

A

Peptide bonds.

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72
Q

Where does the dehydration reaction occur when amino acids bind up together?

A

They are formed between the amino and carboxyl group of the two amino acids.

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73
Q

What is the new name given to the sides that are bound together via a dehydration reaction in a protein.

A

The peptide group

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74
Q

What are the four levels of protein structure?

A

Primary structure, Secondary structure, tertiary structure, quaternary structure.

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75
Q

What does the primary structure describe in a protein?

A

It describes the linear sequence of amino acids that make up the protein.

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76
Q

What does the secondary structure describe in a protein?

A

It describes the interaction between the amide and carboxyl groups that create the first folds in a protein.

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77
Q

What are the two types of shapes created by the interaction between the amide group and carboxyl group? Which bonds create this shape?

A

Alpha helices and beta sheets

Through the hydrogen bond interactions (Between oxygen and hydrogen atoms of their respective groups)

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78
Q

What does the tertiary structure describe in a protein?

A

It describes the interaction between the R group and the adjacent amino acids. These interaction further fold the protein and give it its function

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79
Q

How does the polarity of the R group affect the folding of the protein?

A

If the R group is polar it will interact via H bonds, ionic bonds and covalent bonds with adjacent amino acids, which creates alpha helices and beta sheets. If the R group is non polar it will find itself in the middle of the protein in order to be far from water.

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80
Q

What does the quaternary structure of a protein describe?

A

It describes the interaction between the tertiary structures of two or more proteins. (Usually held by non covalent bonds)

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81
Q

What is protein denaturation?

A

The act by which a proteins shape, and therefore its function is altered by breaking up the bonds that hold its structure. This can be done trough heat or chemical treatment.

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82
Q

What is the function of nucleic acids?

A

Store information and energy

83
Q

What is the name of the monomers that make up DNA?

A

Deoxyribonucleotide

84
Q

What makes up the deoxyribonucleotide monomer?

A

Deoxyribose sugar, phosphate group and a nitrogenous base.

85
Q

What are the four unique nitrogenous bases for DNA?

A

Thymine, Guanine, Adenine and Cytosine

86
Q

What two nitrogenous bases are purines?

A

Adenine and Guanine

87
Q

What two nitrogenous bases are pyrimidines?

A

Thymine and Cytosine

88
Q

How do deoxyribonucleotides bind together to form polydeoxyribonucleotides?

A

Via phosphodiester bonds

89
Q

What are the carbons on which the phosphodiester bonds in ribonucleotides are formed?

A

The 5th carbon on the phosphate group and the 3rd carbon on the base of the ribose sugar ring

90
Q

What is the rule for DNA bonding?

A

Thymine with Adenine and Guanine with Cytosine.

91
Q

Why is DNA antiparallel?

A

Because the phosphate group of each strand repel each other

92
Q

What are some advantages of the DNA structure?

A
  1. The ribose sugar points towards the outside which “protects” the genetic information.
  2. The bases point towards the inside and bind together via H bonds which stabilizes the structure and makes it hard to pull apart when the strand in long.
  3. It is double stranded which permits each strand to act as a “mold” during Dan replication
  4. Genes are stored on both sides as DNA is double stranded.
  5. The structure minimises the interactions with the outside.
93
Q

What type of bond holds nitrogenous together?

A

H-bonds

94
Q

What are the components that make up RNA

A

A ribosugar, a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group.

95
Q

What are the two main differences between ribonucleotides and deoxyribonucleotides?

A
  1. Ribonuclotides have a second hydroxyl group on their second carbon
  2. Ribonucleotides do not have thymine but instead have uracil as a nitrogenous base.
96
Q

What is a structural difference between DNA and RNA? How does it impact the molecules functionality?

A

1.RNA is single stranded whereas DNA is double stranded. This single stranded shape of RNA allows it to fold on itself and have a 3 dimensional shape.

97
Q

What is the significance of RNA’s 3 dimensional capacity?

A

It allows it to take on various shapes which are crucial to translation and transcription.

98
Q

What are the three types of RNA

A

Messenger RNA, Transfer RNA and Ribosomal RNA.

99
Q

What does messenger RNA do?

A

When DNA is transcripts in RNA, the initial strand of RNA that is to be used to create a protein is the mRNA. So it is the template for the future creation of proteins.

100
Q

What does ribosomal RNA do?

A

rRNA interacts with proteins to form a ribosome that will capture the tRNA and coordinate translation.

101
Q

What is transfer RNA?

A

It is a molecule that has an amino acid at its head and a codon at its base. It will read the tRNA to make the protein.

102
Q

What is ATP?

A

It is the major source of the body’s energy. The energy is held in this molecule between the second and third phosphate which is a high energy bond.

103
Q

What is the function of the plasma membrane

A

To control what come in and what goes out of the cell.

104
Q

What are the main components of the cell membrane?

A

Main components: Phospholipids with Cholesterol used for stabilization.

Also has glycoproteins and glycolipids on its surface

105
Q

Is the cell membrane said to be static of dynamic?

A

It is said to be dynamic as the phospholipids move laterally very quickly.

106
Q

What is fluidity?

A

The measure of how easy it is to pass through a substance of to move in this substance.

107
Q

What are some factors that make the cell membrane less fluid?

A

Cold temperatures, high pressure, greater concentration of cholesterol in the cell wall and more saturated fats in the cell membrane.

108
Q

What permits cholesterol to attach itself in the cell membrane?

A

It is amphipathic. Therefore its polar head group binds to the polar head group of the phospholipids and its non polar part interacts with the fatty acid of the phospholipid.

109
Q

What is the function of cholesterol in the cell membrane?

A

It is used to stabilize the fluidity when there are changes in temperature. It does so by keeping the phospholipids from being too close when it is cold or too far when it hot.

110
Q

What happens if there is too much cholesterol in the cell membrane?

A

The cell membrane loses fluidity.

111
Q

Why is the plasma membrane said to be semi permeable?

A

It is said to be semi permeable, as non polar compounds pass straight through the membrane, but charged or polar particles need aid to pass though.

112
Q

Why does a decrease in fluidity affect the cell membrane?

A

Because it affects how easily the membrane proteins will move and how easily solutes can pass though.

113
Q

What are the two main types of transport in a cell? Describe their difference.

A

Passive transport and active transport.

Passive transport requires no energy as substances are carried down their concentration gradient whereas active transport requires energy as solutes are moved from an area of low concentration to one of high concentration.

114
Q

What are the three types of passive transport? Describe them

A

1.Simple diffusion: solutes cross the membrane easily and unaided. (neutral particles)

  1. Facilitated diffusion: Solutes cross the membrane with the help of membrane proteins such as channels and carriers. (charges particles)

3.Osmosis: solvent crosses the membrane with the help of channels to go from a high concentration area to a low concentration area. (for water)

115
Q

What are the two types of active transport? Describe them

A
  1. Carrier transport: Solutes cross the membrane with the help of membrane proteins, namely carriers. (REQUIRES ATP)
  2. Endocytosis/Exocytosis: The membrane changes shape to engulf or to release a large amount of solutes. (REQUIRES ATP)
116
Q

What are the three molecules bound to the cell membrane?

A

Integral membrane proteins, Peripheral membrane proteins and cell membrane carbohydrates.

117
Q

What are some characteristics of integral membrane proteins? Name some examples of integral membrane proteins.

A

They are embedded in the cell. They have a polar and a non polar part (polar points towards the outside).

Examples: carrier proteins, channels, enzymes and receptors.

118
Q

What are some characteristics of peripheral membrane proteins?

A

They are not impeded on the cell membrane. They are attached to integral membrane proteins via H-bonds. The peripheral membrane proteins function to conduct and help maintain the cytoskeleton of the cell, as well as contain the extracellular matrix of the tissue.

119
Q

What are some characteristics of cell membrane carbohydrates?

A

Are either glycolipids (bound to the cell membrane) or glycoproteins (bound to the integrates membrane proteins). They help the body identify if the cells are foreign or not (immune response).

120
Q

What is the fluid mosaic model?

A

It states that the cell membrane is like a fluid mosaic. It is fluid because of the interactions phospholipids and cholesterol and it is a mosaic because of the proteins, glycoproteins and glycolipids impeded in the cellular membrane.

121
Q

what is a cell?

A

the simplest self-replicating entity that can exist as an independent unit of life.

122
Q

What are the 3 things all cells have?

A
  1. Stable blueprint of information in
    molecular form.
  2. Discrete boundary that separates the
    interior of the cell from its external
    environment.
  3. Ability to harness materials and energy from the environment.
123
Q

Do prokaryotic cells have a nucleus, organelles and what are the domains?

A

Nucleus: no
Organelles: no
Domains: Bacteria, archaea

124
Q

What does the fluid mosaic let us infer?

A

It links the structure of the plasma membrane.to its function.
a) If the cell membrane is more fluid proteins can move easier and compounds can pass through easier.

125
Q

Do eukaryotic cells have a nucleus, organelles and what are the domains?

A

Nucleus: yes
Organelles: yes
Domains: plantae, fungi, animalia, protista

126
Q

Where is DNA concentrated in prokaryotic cells?

A

the nucleoid

127
Q

What receives the sperm upon fecondation?

A

Sylvie Dufresne

128
Q

Where is the centrosome located in the cell when the cell is not in mitotic phrase?

A

It is located near the center of the nucleus.

129
Q

What are the extension of the cell membrane in prokaryotic cells called?

A

pili

130
Q

What does the centrosome produce?

A

Microtubules

131
Q

What are the functions of pili?

A

adhesion and DNA conjugation

132
Q

In which organisms can the centrosome be found

A

Animals

133
Q

How many centrioles make up the centrosome?

A

2

134
Q

What happens to the centrosome during cellular division?

A

The centrosome is duplicated and microtubules push the centrosomes apart to physically separate the cell and make two new cells.

135
Q

Where does cellular respiration occur in the cell?

A

The mitochondria

136
Q

What does the mitochondria burn to make ATP

A

Sugars and fats

137
Q

Where in the mitochondria does cellular respiration occur?

A

In the inner membrane of the mitochondria

138
Q

What does the double membrane of the mitochondria allow it to do?

A

Create a potential difference between the inner and inter membrane space which allows ATP to be produced.

139
Q

What is the intermembrane space.

A

It is the narrow region between inner and outer membranes.

140
Q

What is the mitochondrial matrix? What does it contain?

A

The inner space in the cell where cellular respiration takes place. It contains the mitochondria’s DNA, its enzymes and ribosomes.

141
Q

What is the function of chloroplasts?

A

To capture the energy of sunlight and make sugar from it (photosynthesis)

142
Q

What is particular about the membrane of the chloroplast?

A

It has a double phospholipid bilayer. It also has internal membrane bound compartments called thylakoids. It also contains its own DNA.

143
Q

Which compartment in the chloroplasts contains the chlorophyl?

A

Thylakoids.

144
Q

What is endosymbiont theory?

A

It states that the chloroplast and the mitochondria were once individual prokaryotic cells that had a symbiosis relationship with eukaryotic cells. They would have then gotten englobed by eukaryotic cells. Over time they would have gained the ability to reproduce with the eukaryotic cells to eventually fuse in a single entity.

145
Q

The chloroplast is an organelle unique to certain creatures. What are they?

A

Autothophes that produce their energy through sunlight.

146
Q

Can the chloroplast generate energy on its own?

A

No it cannot, as it only generates glucose which can than be used by the mitochondria to make ATP.

147
Q

What are the three cytoskeleton components?

A

The microtubules, the intermediate filaments and the microfilaments

148
Q

What are the functions of the microtubules?

A

They serve as a track for motor proteins, they support the cell against compression (like beams), they separate chromosomes and form flagella and cilia.

149
Q

What are cilia and what are is its functions?

A

They are filaments at the edge of the cell composed of microtubules. They are used for motion by bacteria. They are also used to move fluids on the surface of cells.

150
Q

What are flagellas?

A

They are a motile structure composed of microtubules that are used to propel cells in the same axes at the one in which they attached.

151
Q

What composes microfilaments?

A

They are made up of actin filaments

152
Q

What composes microtubules?

A

Alpha tublin and beta tublin make a hollow tube.

153
Q

What are microfilaments used for?

A

They are used to bear tension on the cell. They are also help form a structural network found just below the cell membrane called the actin cytoskeleton. They are up the microvilli. They also serve as a track for organelles to move and are involved in the process of cell contraction.

154
Q

What are intermediate filaments used for?

A

They serve to bear tension, to reinforce the cell’s shape, fix the position of certain organelles and to anchor cell junctions to the cell membrane.

155
Q

What is the sturdiest between the microtubule, the microfilaments and the intermediate filaments?

A

The intermediate filaments.

156
Q

What are the three types cell junctions?

A

Tight junctions, Desmosomes and Gap junctions.

157
Q

What do tight junctions do?

A

They prevent leakage of extracellular fluid between epithelial cells. They also make the junction between skin cells, which make us watertight.

158
Q

What do desmosomes do?

A

They function as rivets, fastening cells together in sheets, while intermediate filaments anchor the desmosomes intracellularly.

159
Q

What do gap junctions do?

A

They provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to an adjacent cell. This allows for ions like calcium and signalling molecules to be exchanges between cells.

160
Q

What is an extracellular matrix?

A

It is a system that supports tissues structurally and provides informational cues that determine the activity of a cell. It includes includes material found outside the cell like elastin and collagen.

(Can only be describes for multicellular organisms)

161
Q

What are the two main components of the extracellular matrix in animals? Name others if you can

A

Collagen and elastin

Other components include
glycoproteins and carbohydrate-containing “fibrous” molecules.

162
Q

What do proteoglycans do?

A

It is a ground substance between protein fibers that provides hydration and swelling pressure to the tissue enabling it to withstand compressional forces.

163
Q

What is collagen used for?

A

It forms thick fibres that are arranged randomly. This offers tensile strength.

164
Q

What is the most abundant type of collagen in the body? Where is it found?

A

Collagen type 1. In the skin.

165
Q

What are proteoglycans made of?

A

Made of a small protein core with chains of carbohydrates covertly attached to it.

166
Q

What are some proteoglycans?

A

Chondroitin sulfate, heparan
sulfate, keratan sulfate.

167
Q

How are cells attached to the extracellular matrix?

A

Via special glycoproteins like fibronectin that are bound to the cell membrane via integrins.

168
Q

What are integrins bound to?

A

The cytoskeleton

169
Q

How can integrins be used in the cell apart from binding cells to the ECM?

A

They can be used to transfer information.

170
Q

What shape is the DNA in prokaryotic cells?

A

circular

171
Q

what are plasmids?

A

Small forms of DNA which can be exchanged between cells (through pili and only in prokaryotic cells)

172
Q

how can bacteria tolerate changes to their environment?

A

their cell wall which is very strong and resists bursting (maintains shape)

173
Q

What is the cell wall of bacteria made out of?

A

peptidoglycan

174
Q

What is used to classify prokaryotes in their domain?

A

the components of cell walls and cell
membranes

175
Q

Are prokaryotes or eukaryotes bigger?

A

eukaryotes

176
Q

What prevents prokaryotes from being bigger?

A

a lack of organelles which means a lack of compartmentalization, which means
inefficiencies in metabolism.

177
Q

What influences metabolic demands in cells?

A

volume

178
Q

What influences the transport of materials in cells?

A

surface area of the membrane

179
Q

What is the cytoplasm?

A

the area within the plasma membrane
that includes the cytosol and
organelles, but not the
nucleus.

179
Q

What is the cytosol?

A

the liquid inside the cell between the organelles and plasma membrane

180
Q

What are vesicles?

A

small membrane enclosed sacs

181
Q

What are the non-endomembrane organelles?

A

the nuclear interior (and nucleolus),
mitochondria, chloroplast, and centrosomes

182
Q

What are the endomembrane organelles?

A

the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, plasma membrane, and vesicles (incl. lysosomes).

183
Q

What is the nuclear envelope and what is it made out of?

A

it is the boundary of the nucleus and consists of two lipid bilayer membranes (inner and outer) with associated proteins

184
Q

What are nuclear pores?

A

gateways on the nuclear envelope allowing molecules to enter and leave the nucleus

185
Q

What is the nucleolus and what is its function?

A

it is a densely stained region of the nucleus and is where rRNA is synthesized and assembled into large and small ribosomal subunits

186
Q

What are the 2 types of ER and their functions?

A

rough ER: is studded with ribosomes
on its surface, as it synthesizes
proteins that are to be embedded in
the plasma membrane (integral membrane proteins) or secreted out of the cell.

smooth ER: lacks ribosomes but
functions in diverse metabolic processes: synthesizes phospholipids, cholesterol, and steroid hormones, detoxifies harmful toxins and compounds, and
stores calcium ions.

187
Q

Are ribosomes organelles?

A

No

188
Q

What are ribosomes made out of?

A

rRNA and proteins

189
Q

What are the 2 configurations of ribosomes and their functions?

A
  1. Bound to rough ER: make membrane proteins or secreted proteins.
  2. Free in the cytosol: make proteins that remain inside the cell.
190
Q

What is the Golgi apparatus

A

a stack of flattened membrane sacs, called cisternae, surrounded by many small vesicles.

191
Q

What are the functions of the Golgi apparatus?

A
  • receive and fuse with vesicles released from the ER.
  • further modifies lipids and proteins
    produced by the smooth and rough ER (can add sugar groups to make glycoproteins and glycolipids).
  • acts as a sorting station for proteins (directing them to the membrane or to be secreted).
  • helps form the vesicles that will become lysosomes.
192
Q

What are vesicles?

A

membrane-bound organelles found
in the cytoplasm that commonly fuse together or with other organelles

193
Q

What are the functions of vesicles?

A

transportation of macromolecules, digestion, concentrating chemical reactions, and even isolating microbes.

194
Q

What are the functions of transport vesicles?

A
  • these are responsible for transporting
    molecules in or out of the cell.

-they’re used to shuttle macromolecules, like proteins, outside the cell (i.e. exocytosis).

  • some vesicles transport membrane proteins, fusing to the plasma membrane to add these
    proteins to the cell surface.
195
Q

What are the types of vesicles?

A

transport vesicles, phagosomes, lysosomes, and vacuoles

196
Q

What are phagosomes?

A

a type of vesicle which isolates microbes

197
Q

When are phagosomes created?

A

during phagocytosis, which involves the engulfment of invading microbes in the body.

198
Q

What are lysosomes?

A

they are derived from the Golgi and are
responsible for intracellular
digestion (degrading macromolecules,
organelles, or microbes).

199
Q

What is the process through which materials, like microbes, macromolecules, and even damaged cells, are brought into the cell in a vesicle?

A

endocytosis

200
Q

How do lysosomes perform their function?

A

They will fuse with phagosomes or vacuoles to facilitate the digestion of the contents of these cells.

201
Q

What are vacuoles?

A

-large vesicles derived from the ER and/or Golgi apparatus.

-formed from the fusion of multiple smaller vesicles.

  • perform a variety of functions, like: food storage, maintaining cell shape (esp. in plants), maintaining amount of water inside cell.
202
Q

What are autophagosomes?

A

vesicles that form around damaged
proteins and organelles inside the
cell.

203
Q

Through which process are autophagosomes created?

A

autophagy

Biology (4 decks)

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