Unit 1

Question 1

Define Acculturation

Answer 1

A process of cultural adjustment occurring when two cultures come into contact. The complete adoption of the norms and conditions of one people by another usually leads to the absorption of the adopting peoples into the dominant culture.

Question 2

Define Colonization

Answer 2

A meta-term used to define the impact of non-Indigenous settlement in Indigenous territories and on Indigenous peoples.

Question 3

What is an ethnographer?

Answer 3

a scholar who undertakes the systematic recording of human cultures.

Question 4

Waldram refers to a classic essay by Frederik Barth. Barth states that, in anthropological literature, the term “ethnic group” is usually used to refer to a population that:(BFFM)

Answer 4

1. is largely biologically self-perpetuating
2. shares fundamental cultural values, realized in overt unity in cultural forms
3. makes up a field of communication and interaction
4. has a membership which identifies itself, and is identified by others, as constituting a category distinguishable from other categories of the same order.

Question 5

Barth maintains that the most important feature determining the identity of an ethnic group is:

Answer 5

“ascription”; that is, a person is identified as belonging to a particular ethnic group because of his or her origin and background.

Question 6

Bill C-31

Answer 6

Reversed the legal refutation of “Indian” status for women who “married out”. Made it possible to reverse enfranchisement

Question 7

What are the two economies in our society?

Answer 7

The industrial, technological, and knowledge-based modern sector is dynamic: Change promotes further change. The traditional, subsistence sector, however, resists change: It clings to the old ways and is unable to adopt new technology (Wien, 1986). This suggests that, as our economy becomes increasingly knowledge-based, barriers continue to be created that hinder or prevent the entrance of Aboriginal people into the knowledge era. Certain technical and social skills are now prerequisites for entering the labour force.

Question 8

What cultural ethos emerges from the culture of poverty?

Answer 8

Withdrawal and rebellion

Question 9

What year did Charles II issue the Hudson’s Bay Company charter? What did it restate?

Answer 9

1670 - Restated their disregard for any Aboriginal claims

Question 10

What did the Indigenous peoples call themselves before the terms “Indian, Eskimo, Indigenous, etc. was imposed on them?”

Answer 10

The People - [W]here members of the maximum societal groupings did not call themselves “The People” or “Human Beings,” they were likely to employ a toponym [place name] or to make references to a region or location. The inclusive group names were seldom used in daily life. For the most part people referred to themselves, in terms of community, as people of X Town, or the people camped in Y, or sometimes, Z’s people—Z being a political leader.[5]

Question 11

Main factors that disrupted Indigenous peoples when Europeans arrived(5)

Answer 11

-Judeo-Christian beliefs imposed
-Introduction to Iron tools instead of bone
-Invasion of lands
-Intro of guns (animal decline for their furs, specifically buffalos
-Diseases

Question 12

Define “Ascription”

Answer 12

a person is identified as belonging to a particular ethnic group because of his or her origin and background.

Question 13

Why is the income of Indigenous peoples lower than non-Indigenous people?3 - LUE

Answer 13

Because of the low labour-force participation rate, high unemployment, and low educational attainment, the income levels of urban Aboriginal people are very low.

Question 14

What are the 8 major profiling points of urban-Aboriginals?

Answer 14

(1) are more likely to have low levels of education, (2) have low labour force participation rates, (3) have higher unemployment rates, (4) have low income levels, (5) have high rates of homelessness and greater housing needs, (6) are overrepresented in the criminal justice system (both as victims and offenders), (7) have poor health status (particularly in areas such as diabetes, HIV and AIDS, suicide, and substance abuse), and (8) are over twice as likely to have lone-parent families and to experience domestic violence.

Question 15

What does “Citizen plus” entail?

Answer 15

Citizens plus” refers to the view that, since Aboriginal people were the first inhabitants of Canada, they should be afforded special status and rights.

Question 16

What are the four categories of organizations attempting to provide resources to to indigenous peoples moving to urban cities?(PAAM)

Answer 16

Public service, acculturating service, accommodating service, and member organizations

Question 17

What 3 factors have contributed to poverty in Indigenous women?

Answer 17

-Low wage rates, part-time work
-Lack of affordable daycare
-The failure of the legal system to ensure that men pay an appropriate share of family support

Question 18

Magna Carta

Answer 18

Magna Carta is the first example of a king of England consenting to written limits on his power drafted by his subjects.

Question 19

Main features of Royal Proclamation of 1763(5) - CBPPE

Answer 19

1) The creation of “Indian Country” where Indian people could hunt.
2) The establishment of boundaries for the reserved land, that is, Indian Country.
3) A prohibition against all private purchases of Indian lands and traditional territories.
4) A prohibition against the granting of patents for land not ceded to or purchased by the Crown in the reserved territories.
5) The establishment of procedures by which Indians could sell only to the Crown lands in which European settlement was permitted.

Question 20

treaty model developed by Robinson had the basic features listed:6 - NLSAEH&F

Answer 20

1) Negotiations for the treaties were to be held at a public meeting.
2) Land surrendered by Indian people could only be purchased by the Crown, not by individuals.
3) A schedule of reserves on which Indian bands were to settle was to be attached to each treaty. Sale, lease, or any other form of dispersal of reserved land without the permission of the Superintendent General of Indian Affairs was prohibited.
4) Annuities were to be paid in perpetuity to each band member at one pound sterling; higher amounts could be paid to chiefs and principal men of each band.
5) Indian people could not prohibit or prevent exploration for minerals and other resources in the lands they had ceded to the Crown.
6) Hunting and fishing rights for Indian people were acknowledged for all the lands and bodies of water they had surrendered, except those that were leased to or privately owned by individuals and companies, and on land occupied by individuals or companies with consent of the provincial government.

Question 21

The numbered treaties can be divided into two categories:

Answer 21

the Fertile Belt treaties and the Northern Resource Development treaties.

Question 22

Treaties Nos. 8 to 11, are called

Answer 22

the Northern Resource Development treaties, because they were negotiated to gain cession of Indian land rich in natural resources.

Question 23

Treaty No. 8, negotiated with the “Cree, Beaver, Chipewyan and other Indian” peoples in 1899, did not differ from Treaties Nos. 1 to 7 except in one important respect:

Answer 23

Indian people who so wished could be assigned reserved land “in severalty”; that is, tenure could be individual, rather than communal as in most reserves.

Question 24

Define annuity

Answer 24

a yearly payment of a fixed amount given as right for life.

Question 25

Define Crown

Answer 25

the Government of Britain, Canada, or a province of Canada

Question 26

Define fee simple

Answer 26

a freehold estate of virtually unlimited duration, over which one has unrestricted power of disposition during one’s lifetime, and which descends to one’s heirs upon one’s death.

Question 27

Define in perpetuity

Answer 27

forever

Question 28

Define obiter dictum

Answer 28

Latin, “that which said in passing.” a judge’s comments or observations, in passing, on a matter arising in a case before him which does not require a decision. Obiter remarks are not essential to a decision and do not create binding precedent.

Question 29

Define statute

Answer 29

written law of a country or province.

Question 30

Define treaty

Answer 30

in international law, an agreement between two sovereign nations or states; when applied to individuals, the discussion of terms that precedes agreement on a contract.

Question 31

Define usufruct

Answer 31

the legal right of using and enjoying the fruits or profits of something belonging to another

Question 32

miscegenation

Answer 32

(Latin miscere, to mix, and genus, kind or race) marriage or sexual relations between a man and a woman of different races.

Question 33

matriorganization

Answer 33

the organization of a society based on a matrilocal structure, where the husband takes up residence with his wife’s relations.

Question 34

Mestizo

Answer 34

person of mixed parentage.

Question 35

3. What accounts for the higher number of Indigenous women than men in urban centres? (Frideres and Gadacz)

Answer 35

1. Women were denied their Indian status if they married non-Indian
2. Indigenous women are typically more educated than men. As reserves were typically patriarchal, “Man’s world”, if women wanted to put their skills/education to use they would have to leave the reserves.
3. Many have left reserves due to housing and family related reasons. Single mom’s unable to get appropriate housing and domestic violence being the main causes.

Question 36

9. What is meant by the term “enfranchisement” as applied to Indian people in Canada? Identify the legislation passed to facilitate enfranchisement of Indian people before and after Confederation.

Answer 36

Before Bill C-31, there were three ways Indians could be enfranchised.
1. From 1869 to 1985, an Indian woman marrying a nonIndian man would be enfranchised.
2. Previous Indian Acts (1876-1920) had enfranchisement
provisions where individuals were removed from their
band lists if they:
a. got a university degree and joined the medical
or legal profession,
b. got any university degree and met the “fit”
or “civilized” enfranchisement requirements,
c. became a priest or minister, or
3. From 1876 to 1985, individuals could submit an application
to be enfranchised by showing they were “fit” for enfranchisement and entering Canadian society.

Question 37

Explain briefly the origin and development of the term “Indian.”

Answer 37

• Columbus first used it because he thought he reached the east Indies
• European explorers, traders, and colonizers used the term “Indian” (or “Red Indian”) to identify the Indigenous inhabitants of the Western Hemisphere

Question 38

The Indigenous peoples of the United States and in Canada have reluctantly accepted the term Indian as a shared self-identification. Why?

Answer 38

the enduring impact of the attempted colonization of Indigenous peoples has been that the inclusive term has been forced on them, to the extent that some Indigenous peoples use the term for self-identification

Question 39

What accounts for the higher number of Indigenous women than men in urban centres? (Frideres and Gadacz)

Answer 39

1. Women were denied their Indian status if they married non-Indian
2. Indigenous women are typically more educated than men. As reserves were typically patriarchal, “Man’s world”, if women wanted to put their skills/education to use they would have to leave the reserves.
3. Many have left reserves due to housing and family related reasons. Single mom’s unable to get appropriate housing and domestic violence being the main causes.

Question 40

Since World War II, Indigenous people have been migrating to urban centres in ever increasing numbers. What factors prompt this migration? (Frideres & Gadacz)

Answer 40

After World War II, Canada shifted from a rural and agricultural to an urban and industrialized society. Frideres and Gadacz note that this change had an impact on Aboriginal people, particularly women, who for various reasons began to migrate into the urban centres.

after WW2 there was a rapid urban growth and they moved looking for employment, better services or escape from the reserve

Question 41

What factors tend to influence an Indigenous individual’s decision to migrate to an urban centre? (Frideres & Gadacz)

Answer 41

go to city seeking education, work opportunities, amenities/services that are not on reserve; women move because of housing and family issues; people live where they can afford housing; people will choose location based on where others from their community live; where there is a sense of community;

Question 42

Identify the main problems faced by service organizations in their attempts to assist Indigenous people who try to establish residences in urban areas. (Frideres & Gadacz)

Answer 42

jurisdictional tug of war between government results in justification for not developing policy

public services encourage participation of individuals in society but they fail to integrate Aboriginal people into urban society therefore they are more of a barrier

acculturating organization promotes assimilation to Euro-Canadian culture working on referral system but due to that Aboriginal people do not always have the qualifications finding it challenging to even be accepted into the program

accommodating organization attempts to compensate for the lack of preparedness of Aboriginal in contact with Euro-Canadian society, they are unable to offer any real assistance to Aboriginal people

member organizations work against the assimilation into Canadian society, they represent the interests of Aboriginal people as member of distinct people but effectiveness is weakened by absence of employment suited to Aboriginal people as Aboriginal people

Question 43

Describe the effect of the reserve system on the daily lives of registered Indian people. How did this system help to define Indian identity among people of Indigenous descent? (Dyck)

Answer 43

• isolated on special pockets of land and were subject to different laws
• total social institution on their social and cultural organization
• vital aspect of people’s reality and self-identity
• registered Indians in Saskatchewan are not typical “Native people”

Reserves were created in the 1870s-1180s. This made them unable to travel. They coulnd’t get goods from others. Can’t access medicine. Deep sense of loss/sadness that they weren’t able to access the different places they wante to go. Without their leaders making decisions, their way of life was affected. Some had status whikle others didn’t.

Question 44

How do treaty rights affect the identity of Indigenous people in Saskatchewan? (Dyck)

Answer 44

Socio-cultural distance greatened. Pre 1970- bound by administration, and strict rules. Lead to alcohol and drug problems.

Question 45

What arguments are advanced by those who contend that present legal identifications of Indigenous people are arbitrary and should be ended in favour of an all-inclusive Indigenous identity? (Dyck)

Answer 45

-Unilateral decision making.
-Most will be urban dwellers
-Can’t tell the difference anyway.
-Needs are equal but not being met equally
-Racism within the system.original ancestry

Question 46

How might a leader of an organization of status Indians rebut such arguments? (Dyck)

Answer 46

-Marginalise history, preserve status.
-Embedded in fed and provincial programs, more difficult for reserve Indian and should not be forgotten.
-Comes at expense of status Indians.
-Indians peacekeepers between governement and aboriginals.

Question 47

What is the difference between an “ethnic group” as defined by Barth and an “ethnostatus group” as defined by Waldram?

Answer 47

Barth defined membership in a particular ethnic group as to be effectively governed all behaviour in virtually every social situation, and further it cannot be disregarded and temporarily set aside by other definitions of the situation
ethnostatus groups implies that identity can be derived from a combination of cultural and legal factors (unlike “ethnicity,” which develops primarily from cultural factors

Question 48

What cultural factors make the legal distinction between “Indian” and “Métis” appear absurd and arbitrary to some Indigenous communities? (Waldram)

Answer 48

the cultural category “Indian” may include both those with and without legal Indian status. The “Metis” as a group may also contain non-status Indians who, in search for a more positive identity, have gravitated toward the Metis cultural group. However, while these individuals might declare themselves as “Metis,” an objective examination might reveal a cultural pattern more congruent with “Indian.”

-Indian in cultural sense, but separated by status and white status.
-Hunting and fishing different yet same family members
-Housing and education different

Question 49

According to Waldram, what is a “white-status Native”?

Answer 49

legally-defined “nonstatus Indians,” and the culturally-defined “Metis.”

Question 50

According to Waldram, the legal distinction between Indian-status and white-status Natives leads to inequities in the delivery of government services. What inequities exist in the delivery of social assistance and economic development programs?

Answer 50

treaty Indians get more social assistance; an example is the Chipewyan of northern Manitoba; separate schools were eventually constructed at the behest of estranged parents who resented the control of the opposing ethnostatus category over the education of their children; provinces such as Saskatchewan exempt status Indians from provincial sales tax, while all white-status individuals must contribute

Question 51

How has the legal distinction between Indian-status and white-status persons affected political developments in some Indigenous communities? (Waldram)

Answer 51

Status peoples have a longer history of political organisations such as band councils. This affects non status peoples as their own councils are not as developed.

Question 52

According to officially recognized categories, what is the difference between a treaty and a non-treaty Indian person?

Answer 52

-Treaty Indian=register Indian whose band signed treaty agreement. Non treaty -Registered
-Status Indian=Registered under Indian act. Parents on Indian register. Non status=Not registered under the Indian act.

Question 53

According to officially recognized categories, what is the difference between a registered and a non-registered Indian person?

Answer 53

Registered Indians are persons who are registered under the Indian Act of Canada

Question 54

What are the seven parts of the colonization process? (Frideres and Gadacz)

Answer 54

the seven parts of the colonization process are:
1. incursion of colonizing group into geographical area
2. destructive effect on social and cultural structures of Indigenous group
3/4. interrelated process of external political control and Aboriginal economic dependence
5. provision of low quality social services for colonized Aboriginal individuals in areas like health and education
6/7. relate to social interactions between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people and refer ro racism and establishment of a colour-line

Question 55

What is “collective” identity? (Frideres and Gadacz)

Answer 55

a collective identity is how the group sees themselves (self-image)- Clear vision of culture

Question 56

According to Frideres and Gadacz how were Aboriginal people first defined by Canada?

Answer 56

-15th-16th=heathen and infidels
-Implacable obstacles

Question 57

How were non-status Indians defined by the Department of Indian Affairs? (Frideres and Gadacz)

Answer 57

-Not consider Indians as not defined by the crown.
-Dropped from Indian Register

Question 58

How did enfranchisement occur, and how could an Aboriginal person become reinstated? (Frideres and Gadacz)

Answer 58

-Give up status in order to vote-
-Apply to Ottawa through choice
-Intermarriage. If woman married out, not same for men.
-Obtain land
Reinstate:
-Reapply to Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development.
-Bands also need to accept.

Question 59

How has the official description of the Inuit person changed from 1867 to the present? (Frideres and Gadacz)

Answer 59

-1939-Supreme court ruled fell under Indian Act
-Eskimo was Indian term for Artic people. Some still call themselves.
-Inuktitut (own language) use Inuit (the people) 1977 they wanted to be referred.
-Not a homogeneous group.
were considered Indians, then was based on who was given a disc number

Question 60

According to Frideres and Gadacz, what are some of the divisive effects of terminology and labelling of Aboriginal people?

Answer 60

leads government to strategy of divide and conquer as well as assimilation; Aboriginal people begin to fight among themselves; treaty vs non-treaty receive different privileges, different amounts of money and different rights so that is very divisive……….
-Covers oppressive behaviour of government, dehumanise the uniqueness of Aboriginal people
-Tribal affiliation ignored
-People not aware of the differences the three distinct groups get

Question 61

What is meant by the term “enfranchisement” as applied to Indian people in Canada? Identify the legislation passed to facilitate enfranchisement of Indian people before and after Confederation.

Question 62

What was the reaction of Indian leaders to the policy of enfranchisement? (Leslie and Maguire)

Answer 62

-Divided, some dissuade members and some surrendered
-Wanted education and agriculture supports but not to separate people
-Native rights, some leaders used legal activity

Question 63

Describe particular amendments to the Indian Act aimed at eradicating Indian cultural and religious practices. (Leslie and Maguire)

Answer 63

-1920=force attendance and penalties for schooling aged 7-15years. Christianity
-Prohibit tribal marriages in BC
-Participation in dance, rodeo, exhibitions subject to agent. consent(viewed as evil)
-1917-Prohibit hunting all game birds

Question 64

Analyse the arguments advanced during the first half of the twentieth century by various politicians, government officials, and influential members of the public, and write a paragraph or two on the composite picture that Euro-Canadians had of Native peoples. (Leslie and Maguire)

Answer 64

-Pedley restructured, no stagnation
-Scott, dissuade dances (uncilvilized and unproductive) 1920-Mandatory residential schools
-1927-prohibited removal of totem poles and rock paintings without consent of Super.In.Gen.
-1929-Complaints in inuits not taking surname
-1938-Indian affairs branch state not meeting native problems
-1946 Allison Glen (mines and resource) should assume fulll rights = new Indian act 1951

Question 65

How did the role of women in Iroquoian society differ from that of women in Euro-Canadian society in the nineteenth century? (Jamieson, p. 113)

Answer 65

The Iroquois society was matrifocal, matrilineal and matrilocal; hereditary eligibility was through the female; females had decision making power over war and peace

Euro-Canadian women were seen as the property of their husband.

Question 66

Discuss “the concept of victimization,” as defined by St. Clair Drake. (Jamieson, p. 114)

Answer 66

Some people are used as the means to other people’s ends without their consent; the social structure is manipulated to disadvantage some

Question 67

After 1867, how were Indian women legally punished for marrying spouses who were not registered Indians? (Jamieson, pp. 117-118)

Answer 67

They were not able to be an Indian within the meaning of the Act; her children also lost status; may be forced to leave reserve but she did not lose annuities;

Question 68

What is meant by “commutation of annuities”? How did commutation affect Indian women who had “married out” after the promulgation of the Indian Act of 1951? (Jamieson, pp. 120–122)

Answer 68

Commutation of annuities means that the annuities come in one lump sum. Until 1951, women could collect annuities if she did not choose the lump sum so she was on the band list, but after 1951 once a woman married out her Indian status and band rights were stripped.

Question 69

What financial and economic disadvantages were suffered by women who had married out? (Jamieson, pp. 123-125)

Answer 69

Lower financial compensation; lost a great deal of potential income; opportunity costs were very high;

Question 70

How did Bill C-31 (An Act to Amend the Indian Act) remove discriminatory measures that had previously affected Indian women who had married out? (Jamieson, p. 128)

Answer 70

Eliminated enfranchisement and providing for the reinstatement of those women who lost their statutes in the past and gave power to the bands to formulate own membership codes

Question 71

How could previously enfranchised Indian people and their children regain their Indian status once Bill C-31 became law? (Jamieson, p. 131)

Answer 71

They had to apply to the Department of Indian Affairs for reinstatement to band membership and re-registration for Indians under the Indian Act.

Question 72

Why did some Indian bands oppose the reinstatement of Indian women who had married out to their status as band members? (Krosenbrink-Gelissen) Do you agree or disagree with the position taken by these bands? State your reasons.

Answer 72

To establish a national political office in Ottawa; until the existence of Indian and Aboriginal rights were fully recognized by federal government and legal guarantees were given

Question 73

The Native Women’s Association of Canada supports the attainment of Native self-government as a political priority, but thinks that there is a fundamental prerequisite to the attainment of that objective. Discuss this prerequisite, and the position of the Association toward it. (Krosenbrink-Gelissen)

Answer 73

the principle of sexual equality for Aboriginal men and women must unambiguously and constitutionally stand above Aboriginal self-government. This guarantee is perceived as necessary, and unless it is implemented Indian women will still be in trouble with band councils under self-government

Question 74

How does the Native Women’s Association of Canada define sexual equality? (Krosenbrink-Gelissen)

Answer 74

-Constitutional protection to be clear , unambiguous and adequately secured
-Wants all Indian and Aboriginal people to be recognized not just those with legal category.
-Want Canadian women’s rights protected within Aboriginal laws without limitation for reinstatement
-removing the sex-discriminatory provisions in the Indian Act

Question 75

What categories of Indian people are created under Bill C-31? (Krosenbrink-Gelissen)

Answer 75

people who have to reinstate their Indian status; different school categories; people with fewer than two Indian grandparents

Question 76

The Native Women’s Association of Canada was not represented at the First Ministers’ constitutional conferences. How did the Association influence constitutional changes that affected the interests of Native women? (Krosenbrink-Gelissen)

Answer 76

lobbied to have sexual equality on the constitutional agenda; participated in other official delegations; improved relations with the Assembly of First Nations

Question 77

What was the nature of the roles held by Indigenous women in their societies prior to interaction with Euro-Canadian peoples?

Answer 77

women were highly respected with their thoughts being sought prior to decision making; woman was first person to accept peacemaker’s message of peace and unity in formation of Five Nations Confederacy; defined as nourisher; keeper of culture

Question 78

According to the Report of the Royal Commission, what has been the enduring impact of Canadian governmental policy and legislation on Indigenous women?

Answer 78

issue of women not being able to control their cultural identity because it depended on husband

Question 79

What effect did 1951 amendments to the Indian Act have on Indian women?

Answer 79

further disadvantaged women and their children; double mother rule (if mother and grandmother married to get status their child could not get status)

Question 80

What are some of the enduring realities for women and children enfranchised under the Indian Act?

Answer 80

double mother rule; lost status, being removed from reserve; financial loss; inconsistent criteria; still facing discrimination

Question 81

According to Diamond Jenness, what were some of the major causes of prejudice between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people in Canada? (Jenness, pp. 159-159)

Answer 81

reserve system (special status exempt from taxes); economic status of Indigenous people (lower than white neighbours); lacked education of white neighbours

Question 82

What examples does Jenness cite to describe prejudice between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people? (Jenness, p. 159)

Answer 82

people said the Indigenous were shiftless and unreliable as workers; special status from government; Jim Crow Law (no Indigenous could walk beside white person or sit on same side in church) - Shabby houses, shabby cars, lower education. Called Indigenous people “Siwashes” and “dirty”. Indigenous childen forced into federally funded schools when chinese and japanese children were welcomed in white schools, white trappers threatening Indigenous peoples on their own trapping grounds with no legal recourse, lower wages paid by white people to Indigenous peoples less than other ethnicities,

Question 83

To what does Jenness refer when he describes the “Apartheid system”? (Jenness, pp. 160-161)

Answer 83

the reserve system; working and living on the same space

Question 84

How was the policy of enfranchisement related to assimilation policies? (Jenness, pp. 161-162)

Answer 84

because when people are enfranchised they are forced to assimilate to the majority population

Question 85

How does the “Declaration of The First Nations, 18 November, 1981” define Indigenous rights? (Jenness, p. 338)

Answer 85

all rights from Royal Promclamation of October 1763; all rights recognized in treaties between the Crown and nations/tribes of Indians in Canada; all rights acquired by Aboriginal peoples in settlements of agreements with Crown

Question 86

How is colonialism defined in J. Rick Ponting’s “Relations between Bands and the Department of Indians Affairs: A Case of Internal Colonialism?” (Ponting, pp. 85-86)

Answer 86

forms of manipulation or social control exercised by the DIA bureaucracy over its Indian clientele. Particularly important were socio-fiscal control (based on control over the “purse strings”) and technocratically based control, which might be called neo-paternal- ism.

Question 87

In the study presented by Ponting, what were the criticisms against the Department of Indian Affairs concerning self-administration, economic development, and the flow of information? (Ponting, pp. 87-98)

Answer 87

DIA has prematurely sloughed off its administrative responsibilities onto some bands before they adequately prepared to assume those responsibilities; the alleged motivation for this is to make it likely that the bands will fail at self- administration so that (1) DIA will have to reassume responsibility; (2) other bands will be deterred from moving toward self-admin- istration and (3) the jobs of DIA staff members will be secured rather than phased out.

The most widespread criticism is that DIA’s economic develop- ment programs are grossly under-funded. the inadequacy of funds to hire con- sultants to do adequate advance planning predisposes many eco- nomic development projects to failure; and the department’s ap- proach of merely providing “seed” (start-up) money is a “band-aid” approach that fails to come to grips with the enormity and gravity of the need. They favour one band over others

One complaint is that some bands get notice of a meeting only after the meeting has already been held, or get notice of the existence of newly available program funds only after the deadline for applying or after other bands have already been allocated all or most of the funds. DIA is also criticized for not giving bands enough lead time to be able to respond properly to some requests for information and for some- times not giving enough advance notice to enable sound proposals to be formulated

Question 88

What purpose does Ponting’s parallel case study of the Newfoundland Workmen’s Compensation Board serve? (Ponting, pp. 98-102)

Answer 88

social system is transition from traditionalism to modernism; distrust is prominent; paternalistic modes of thinking

Question 89

What are Ponting’s conclusions? (Ponting, pp. 102-109)

Answer 89

the Penner Committee’s recommendation endorsing some Indian politicians’ calls for the dissolution of DIA is too simplistic a solu- tion for at least the short to intermediate term.

(1) the realization that, like many other government departments, DIA is in an intermediary position between its clientele and the larger govern- ment apparatus; (2) that DIA is under siege from both sides; and (3) that unlike many other government departments, DIA lacks both governmental support to “manage” its clientele and clientele support

it should be noted that Indians in Canada constitute an enormously heterogeneous clientele compared to the clientele of most other government departments. Bands vary widely in terms of their political power and political sophistication, their geography, and the degree of need exhibited in their socio-economic circum- stances.

Question 90

How do treaty rights differ from Aboriginal rights

Answer 90

the term “Aboriginal rights” has been used internationally to refer to the rights Indigenous people possess by virtue of being indigenous to their lands and territories

Question 91

What doctrines did European powers devise to rationalize their rule over Indian people in the New World?

Answer 91

Doctrine of discovery declared that a European discoverer of lands previously unknown to Europeans was entitled to claim the exclusive right to acquire those lands from the indigenous inhabitants

Question 92

Contrast the arguments advanced by Las Casas and Sepúlveda about Indian sovereignty and title to land.

Answer 92

Las Casas felt they were rational human beings who deserved respect in the same way that all human beings in the world did

Sepúlveda, who argued that Aboriginal people should be regarded as inferior to European people, and that Europeans were obligated to place Aboriginal people under their guardianship, so that they could be brought to adopt European moral standards and customs

Question 93

Outline the main provisions of the peace and friendship treaties with respect to maintaining peace and settling disputes

Answer 93

to obey the English Crown and lay down their arms; to be friendly to English subjects and not associate with the French; to carry on trade with the English according to the laws of the province or the wishes of its governor; to approach the government of the province to settle disputes whenever they occurred, instead of resorting to private acts of revenge; to give three hostages to the province as a pledge of their fidelity to the treaty; to free all English captives; and to permit English subjects to enter their land unmolested

Question 94

Outline the main provisions of the peace and friendship treaties with respect to trading of goods in Aboriginal lands

Answer 94

The Aboriginal people were told not to engage in trade with European traders who were rivals of the English

Question 95

Outline the main provisions of the peace and friendship treaties with respect to hunting, fishing, fowling

Answer 95

they were allowed to hunt, fish and fowl with no restrictions

Question 96

Outline the main provisions of the peace and friendship treaties with respect to acknowledging Aboriginal title and sovereignty

Answer 96

The English promised to acknowledge Aboriginal title, liberties, and properties which had not been conveyed or sold to or possessed by English subjects

Question 97

How did the rivalry between France and England affect the Aboriginal people’s way of life before 1760?

Answer 97

caused alliances to be formed as they wanted the support or neutrality of indigenous peoples

Question 98

How did gift giving become part of establishing friendly relations between Indian people and European powers? Discuss the different British and French views on gift giving.

Answer 98

English gave gifts to prevent a French-Indian alliance (thought gift giving was repugnant)

Friend placated Aboriginals by being generous in gift giving in hopes to prevent Anglo-Indian alliance

Question 99

Briefly comment on Aboriginal diplomacy during the rivalry between the French and the British.

Question 100

How does David McNab define “Colonial Office Indian policy”? (McNab, pp 85-86)

Answer 100

responsible for Indian policy in British North America;

Question 101

What was the priority for administrators of the Indian Department in the 1840s and 1850s? (McNab, p. 86)

Answer 101

aimed to precent conflicts between the indigenous inhabitants and white settlers concerning issues related to land and labour

Question 102

What four alternatives were put forward to address the “native question” in 1841? (McNab, p. 87)

Answer 102

extermination, slavery, insulation, amalgamation:

Question 103

How did Merivale and the Indian Department respond to requests from bands in Rupert’s Land to enter into treaty negotiations in the 1850s? (McNab, pp. 92-96)

Answer 103

he wanted it to be left alone because of the heavy HBC presence and they valued white settlers’ labour more

Question 104

What does Irene Spry mean by “the tragedy of the loss of the commons”? (Spry, pp. 203-211)

Answer 104

The tragedy of the commons is an economics problem in which every individual has an incentive to consume a resource, but at the expense of every other individual – with no way to exclude anyone from consuming. Initially it was formulated by asking what would happen if every shepherd, acting in their own self-interest, allowed their flock to graze on the common field. If everybody does act in their apparent own best interest, it results in harmful over-consumption (all the grass is eaten, to the detriment of everyone)

Question 105

What was the impact of the final tragedy in the loss of the commons: the loss of the commons to private owners with exclusive property rights? (Spry, pp. 219-224)

Answer 105

Civilization, settlement, and private property caught up with them. The rising of 1885 was a last despairing attempt to protect the commons on which they depended for their way of life. With those commons gone, they faced economic disaster, especially as supplementary opportunities for earning an income as tripmen were disappearing at the same time as the buffalo

Question 106

How did the War of 1812 affect the bargaining position of the Indian nations of Upper Canada vis-à-vis the colonial government? (Surtees, pp. 67-70)

Answer 106

more pressure to give up large sections of land but they were as vulnerable as ever as they were becoming the minority in area

Question 107

Why did the colonial government enter into negotiations with Indian chiefs for land surrenders? (Surtees, pp. 65-67)

Answer 107

they wanted a way to provide for the military settlements and expected immigration

Question 108

How did the system of annual treaty money start in Upper Canada? (Surtees, pp. 69-70)

Answer 108

started by the British trying to figure out how to pay for land; income from interest in land auction would make annual payment to Indians who sold land; effort to save money by making a system of annuities rather than one payment

Question 109

In exchange for surrendering their lands, what did the Indian tribes in Upper Canada ask the colonial government to give them? (Surtees, pp. 71-73)

Answer 109

4000 pounds, blacksmith to make spears and hoes; provisions be sent in the summer; annual presents sent our earlier

Question 110

What factors, psychological, economic, social, and other, led Indigenous people to give up vast tracts of land to the colonial government? (Surtees, pp. 65-84)

Answer 110

They had declined in numbers, and because they were being separated from their american brethren, they were losing a major aspect of their importance in the eyes of British Commanders. There was also division within the province, promoted by British officials, into seperate tribes, groups within tribes, and so on. This was done to make each tribe dependant on the king of England. Careful use of interpreters, the location of the distribution of gifts, and the assignment of indian land agents

Question 111

Why did the colonial government decide to negotiate treaties with the Indians in the Lake Huron and Lake Superior regions in 1850? (Morris)

Answer 111

there was the discovery minerals so the government thought it would desirable to extinguish Indian tite

Question 112

Why were the Métis, or Halfbreed, people included in the Robinson treaties? (Morris)

Answer 112

“relations of the Indians and the half-breeds have long been cordial the claims of the halfbreed’s recognition was ordered by Indians”

Question 113

What is the significance of the Royal Proclamation of 1763 to treaties made with Indian people?

Answer 113

Britain issued a royal proclamation in which the provisions affecting Indians reflected the lessons learned from the Pontiac resistance. These provisions are regarded by many Aboriginal people as the “Magna Carta” of Aboriginal rights

Question 114

According to Opekokew, the treaties confirmed certain principles and guaranteed certain rights in perpetuity. Outline and discuss five of these principles and rights.

Answer 114

1. The Indian nations retained sovereignty over their people, lands, and resources, both on and off the reserves, subject to some shared jurisdiction with the appropriate government bodies on the lands known as unoccupied Crown lands. This is the foundation of Indian government.
2. By signing the treaties, the Indian nations created an ongoing relationship with the Crown in Indian social and economic development in exchange for lands surrendered.
3. The Indian nations established tax revenue sharing between the Crown and the Indian nations.
4. The Indian nations established a political protocol for annual reviews of the progress of the treaties.
5. The Indians’ interpretation of the treaties will supersede all other interpretations.

Question 115

Indian people have argued in litigation that the federal government has not lived up to its legal and moral responsibilities in the implementation of the treaties made with Indian people. Identify and describe key examples of outright breaches of the federal government’s treaty obligations. (Opekokew)

Answer 115

1 The treaties required that all future dealings with Indian nations be based on the spirit and intent of the treaties, and required that those treaties supersede all future legislation and government policies affecting Indian people. That principle has been totally disregarded.

2 The Government of Canada does not regard treaties as being supreme and in fact has passed legislation, including the Indian Act, to supersede them. It is acknowledged that the federal government has exclusive responsibility to legislate in regard to Indians and their lands pursuant to the British North America Act, s.91(24), but that power to legislate should be subject to the treaties a d therefore should recognize Indian Government.

3 The Canadian courts have interpreted the treaties as being mere promises and have taken the position that the Canadian government, being supreme, may legislate in breach of those treaties.

4 The Indian Act has been used as a vehicle to control Indian Government, contrary to the spirit and intent of the treaties.

5 Even those promises expressly included in the written treaties have been abrogated:

Indian reserve lands are subject to expropriation laws;

The right to hunt, fish, trap, and gather has been limited by recent legislation;

Certain clauses such as the “medicine chest clause” have been interpreted wrongly so that the total health and medical coverage envisaged by the Indians has been limited in some cases;

Social and economic benefits have not been forthcoming.

Question 116

What reasons could one give to argue that the views expressed by the British, American, and Canadian courts on treaties made with Indian people are merely European views?

Question 117

How do Leslie Green and Delia Opekokew differ in their views of the importance of interpretation in treaties made with Indian people?

Question 118

What does Leroy Little Bear mean by the “Grundnorm approach”? (Little Bear, pp. 243-244)

Answer 118

whatever the government can get away with may in the future come to be held to be legal, just as it has in the past, regardless of the fact that it is inconsis- tent with standards in aboriginal, British, and international law.

Question 119

What four points does Leroy Little Bear use to describe what Indians surrendered in the Treaty negotiations? (Little Bear, pp. 246-247)

Answer 119

the Indian concept of land ownership is certainly not inconsistent with the idea of sharing with an alien people.

the Indians could not have given unconditional (“fee sim- ple”) ownership to Europeans in any land transactions in which they may have engaged because they did not themselves have fee simple ownership

Indians could not have given an interest even equal to what they were originally granted, because to do so would be to break the condition under which the land was granted by the Creator

the only kind of interest the native people have given or transferred must be an interest lesser than they had, for one can always give an interest smaller than one has.

Question 120

According to Leroy Little Bear, what is the importance of treaties with regard to rights and title to land in Canada? How does he interpret treaties and land title? (Little Bear, pp. 251-253)

Answer 120

The title was held to be less than a full fee simple interest because it contained restrictions not found in full fee simple ownership rights

once the Indians sur- render their title to the land (or otherwise have it extinguished), all encumbrances are removed and the federal Crown’s interest becomes complete (unrestricted)

Indian nations in Canada could not claim “allodium rights” (that is, absolute ownership with out being subjected to any superior rights of others) to land

Question 121

Using the case law Leroy Little Bear provides as examples, describe how the Canadian Courts have interpreted treaty rights. (Little Bear, pp. 251-255)

Answer 121

The significance of the Calder case lies in the fact that it recognizes prior occupancy as a basis for aboriginal title and in the fact that it recognizes that aboriginal title can exist without the Royal Proclamation of 1763

When the St. Catharine’s and Calder casesare taken together, the scope and extent of aboriginal title can be summarized thusly:
1. Aboriginal title is a personal and usufructuary interest, recognizable in Canadian law.
2. Its existence can be traced either to the Royal Proclamation of 1763 or it can be based on possession from time immemorial.
3. Its continuing existence is at the goodwill of the Sovereign, and aboriginal title can be extinguished at the whim of the Sovereign.
4. The Sovereign is not necessarily obligated to pay compen- sation for the extinguishment of aboriginal title.

Question 122

Why were the Indian people who negotiated Treaty No. 6 in 1876 anxious to come to an agreement with the Treaty Commissioners on health issues? (Barkwell)

Answer 122

they feared that the government intended to wait until they were outnumbered by settlers before opening negotiation;

Question 123

If the medicine chest clause appears only in Treaty No. 6, what reasons does Barkwell advance that it also applies to Indian people who signed subsequent treaties?

Answer 123

statements made by Commissioners on a number of occasions that all treaties were to be the same; undertakings which the Indians say were given by the Commissioner during negotiations

Morris told Cree that their treaty should be the same as previous treaties so that all were equal

Question 124

How has the federal government interpreted the medicine chest clause with regard to the extension of medical services to treaty Indian people? (Barkwell)

Answer 124

the federal government consistently denies any legal obligation to provide health services to the Indians, it just as consistently states that such services are provided upon moral or humanitarian ground

federal government has also made it a policy to negotiate inclusion of Indians in provincial hospital insurance programs. This usually takes the form of paying the premiums for Indians living on reserves or Indians who have been off the reserve for less than twelve month

the most the federal government is obligated to do is provide access to first-aid kits.

Question 125

What is your understanding of the term “four corners of the document” in interpreting treaties? What approach does Barkwell feel the courts should adopt in interpreting the medicine chest clause? Why does he favour this approach?

Question 126

How have Canadian courts interpreted the medicine chest clause? In your answer refer to the following cases: Dreaver v. The King, R. v. Johnston, Manitoba Hospital Commission v. Klein and Spence, and R. v. Swimmer. (Barkwell)

Answer 126

Dreaver v. The King was a case against federal government to gain compensation for money spent by the Mistawasis Band on medical supplies after 1919 and it was ruled that the medical supplies should have been free based on treaty

R. v. Johnston was a case where he failed to pay a hospital fee but it was ruled that under treaty no. 6 all hospital services would be free of charge

Culliton CJ.S questioned the medical chest clause and concluded that based on the wording the Crown is not obligated to provide all medical services including hospital care

Manitoba Hospital Commission v. Klein and Spence was a case where the commission won as Manitoba is covered by treaties 1 and 2 which have no provision for free medical care or expenses

Swimmer was charged with failing to pay a tax under the hospitalization act and it was ruled that the medicine chest clause covered him.

Question 127

According to John S. Long, what is the origin of Métis people in northern Ontario? (Long, pp. 138-143)

Question 128

How did the Treaty No. 9 commissioners deal with Métis claims to land in Northern Ontario? (Long, pp. 147-155)

Answer 128

they gave them 160 acres of land reserving minerals. The and had to be in the district in which they currently reside and the plus could not interfere with Hudson’s Bay posts or Indian Reserves

Question 129

What is the basis of the Indian people’s belief that they have an “absolute right” to hunt and fish in surrendered and unsurrendered lands?

Answer 129

Many Indians believe that when their forefathers signed the treaties they successfully negotiated with the treaty commissioners for the “absolute right” to hunt and fish over all the lands surrendered. This was understood to mean the unlimited right to hunt and fish by any method, for any kind of game, anytime and anywhere. Indians still do not consider that this right can in any way be restricted without breaching a sacred treaty promise made to them in good faith

Question 130

What does “usufructuary title” mean as it applies to Indian lands?

Answer 130

sufficed to protect the Indians in the absolute use and enjoyment of their lands ..

Question 131

“The British North America Act of 1930 does not give treaty Indian people an absolute right to hunt and fish in Canada.” Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Give reasons for your answer.

Question 132

In what way does the Migratory Birds Convention Act breach the treaty right to hunt?

Answer 132

The convention was drawn up for the protection of those migratory birds named in the treaty. In Canada, the Migratory Birds Convention Act was passed in 1917 and regulations were thereafter made under it.

it breaches the treaty right to hunt because it does not allow the Indigenous to freely hunt

Question 133

How does the Fisheries Actaffect the treaty right to fish for food?

Answer 133

it has been held to apply to Indians in other provinces where treaties were signed, so there are restrictions on fishing

Question 134

In your opinion, do the Natural Resources Transfer Agreements of Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba limit the treaty right to hunt? How have the courts ruled on cases in which Indian peoples base their defence on these agreements when charged with hunting infractions?

Question 135

Consider the facts in the following case and prepare arguments you would use to prosecute or defend the person charged with the breach of law: H. Yellowbird, a non-status Indian from Saskatchewan, is charged with killing a moose out of season, while visiting a cousin who lives on a reserve in Alberta. The moose was shot on the property of a farmer whose land is near the reserve. There were no signs posted prohibiting access to the farmer’s land. In your answer, quote cases that you would use to support your argument.

Question 136

How have the Aboriginal and treaty rights to hunt and fish been formulated by the Canadian judiciary? In your opinion, what impact could these interpretations have on Aboriginal economies?

Question 137

What provoked Harold Cardinal to charge the Canadian government with having negotiated the treaties in bad faith?

Answer 137

He saw that the Indians did not fully understand what they were agreeing to, their side of the story is very different to the crowns version. The government makes empty promises and is fork tongued.

Question 138

Why does Cardinal maintain that the treaties are as relevant to Indigenous people today as in the days in which they were negotiated?

Answer 138

treaty rights represent a sacred honourable agreement; rights are valuable;

Question 139

What is the evidence that treaties were meant to last forever and that their validity was expected to extend to the future?

Answer 139

The evidence was their word**Embedded in oral tradition.cree : as long as the river flowsmetephor as long as the sun shines or sun walksas long as there are plants growingused pipes to connect to spiritual powers of land.treaty was not just between people but land aslo.

Question 140

According to the Elders, of what importance were Indian religious symbols and ceremonies to the negotiation and signing of the treaties?

Answer 140

Mainly the pipe stem.concluding of treaties. Considered valid not by signature but by pipes. Like swearing by bible for example.

Question 141

Pay particular attention to what the Elders say about land and mineral rights. How do the interpretations of the Elders differ from the clauses outlined in the numbered treaties?

Answer 141

The Indians were told that if anything was found under 6 inches of the dirt, half of it would be given back to them. They were told that anything that was not used for agriculture would be theirs, which did not happen because the papers that were signed made canada owned by the white men.

Question 142

How, according to Olive Dickason, have historians, especially Quebec historians, determined that métissagedid not lead to the emergence of a “New Nation” in Northeast Canada? (Dickason, pp. 20–21)

Answer 142

because they denied that the mingling between races did not even occur

Question 143

What was the policy of the Company of New France on the assimilation or “Frenchification” of Indigenous people? (Dickason, p. 22)

Answer 143

They were to be led to faith like the French and will be able to live in France if they wish, get proper with inheritance rights as if they were born French

Question 144

What was marriage à la façon du pays? What was the attitude of the church in New France to such marriages? (Dickason, pp. 22–23)

Answer 144

the Ameridinian way; the church disapproved because it was outside the christian practice and the French became “savage because they lived with them” the church then tried to baptizing native brides before marriage and regularizing unions in accordance with Christian ritual

Question 145

What social and economic benefits resulted from intermarriage for Amerindians and the French in Acadia during the fur trade period? (Dickason, pp. 23-24)

Answer 145

polygyny was able to occur; it drew the alliance closer; children become serviceable subjects
-Offspring hardy for winter and war, very serviceable-Indian hunters and fur traders became closer through kinship-Amerindians attitude to marriage not always permanent served the Europeans well as they could leave-Women familiar with country but serve the Frenchman in every way

Question 146

What political and military benefits did the French derive from métissage in Acadia? (Dickason, pp. 25–27)

Answer 146

polygyny; closer alliance;
-Monstrous offspring strong for war, need for workforce-Women act as interpreters

Question 147

Why did missionaries in Acadia encourage intermarriage between Amerindians and the French? (Dickason, p. 27)

Answer 147

because there was a dowry and they thought that would lead to more marital stability

Question 148

Which region of North America is referred to as the “Old Northwest”? (Dickason, pp. 28 and 30)

Answer 148

Great Lakes and Ohio Valley

Question 149

Why was it that the métis of the Old Northwest did not emerge as a “New Nation”? (Dickason, p. 30)

Answer 149

it was forestalled by the rush of settlement
-Anglo-French rivalry, good bargaining position, uniquely qualified to carry on fur trade-Look upon themselves as a distinct blend of two cultures, seen in dress mix of Indian/French-New nation not taken due to rush of settlement

Question 150

Discuss the circumstances that favoured the emergence of a New Nation in the region of Canada referred to as the “Far Northwest.” (Dickason, pp. 30-31)

Answer 150

isolation, slowness of settlement, enduring importance of the fur trade

Question 151

What does Foster mean by the “classical image” of the Métis in the pre-1870 West?

Answer 151

The Frenchspeaking, Roman Catholic, non-Indian native, buffalo hunters of the Red River Settlement emerged distinct from the socio-cultural mosaic of the period and the region.

Question 152

What was the French tradition of the fur trade? (Foster)

Answer 152

St. Lawerence fur trade tradition included the practice of carrying trade goods to the Indian trappers and returning with furs; was the trader-broker role which some persons of mixed ancestry controlled; journey to red river to hunt buffalo

Question 153

Who were the coureurs de bois? (Foster)

Answer 153

-No permit from colonial authorities (unlike voyageurs), independent-Middle men, trade European goods for fur, developed into metis

Question 154

Identify the people Foster calls the “Home Guard Indians.” What was their importance in the emergence of a mixed population in Western Canada?

Answer 154

-Guides to posts from coast to interior, supplied for English, broker, middleman-Highest social position

Question 155

How did matrilocality determine the ethnic identification of children of mixed parentage? (Foster)

Answer 155

-Not race but ay of life-If mother and child stayed in Indian band, child is Indian-Mother and child resided in trading post child was Canadian or Scots

Question 156

Which group of people of mixed parentage became known as the “New Nation”? How did they acquire this name? (Foster)

Answer 156

-Bands of mixed ancestry who supplied pemmican and meat to traders. Northwest Company officers encouraged them to see themselves as new nation -Interests threatened by Selkirk settlers and HBC policies.-Battle of Seven Oaks emerged as a self conscious entity

Question 157

How did Indian people who were brought to the Canadian West from Eastern Canada come to be classified as Métis? (Foster)

Answer 157

-Northwest company moved in 200 Indians for trapping furs into the interior-They demanded more Euro-Canadian goods than the Indians resident to region-Iroquois radiated outward and took kinship with Cree making them god hunters and trappers, continued with HBC-Some chose script over treaty as did not view as Indian as derived ways from St Lawrence tradition

Question 158

What is Frits Pannekoek’s thesis on relationships between Catholic Métis and Protestant Halfbreeds at Red River before 1870? (Spry, p. 95)

Answer 158

were at odds years before the resistance and the origins of that hatred lat in nature of Red River society. The first resistance was in part caused by racial conflict

Question 159

What are some of the examples from primary documents that Spry gives to support a friendly relationship between the Métis and the Halfbreeds? (Spry, pp. 96-100)

Answer 159

-many Metis and mixed bloods could speak English and French
-marriages between the groups

Question 160

What other examples does Spry give to support a friendly relationship between the Métis and the Halfbreeds? (Spry pp. 102-110)

Answer 160

• names of the people
• business transaction (grains from Carriers’ farm to Tait’s mill)
  -joined in Red River buffalo hunt
• freighting
• party sent from Red River Settlement in 1832 to bring back a herd f sheep from US with both Metis and halfbreeds
• demanded representation on council

Question 161

What is your understanding of the term “matriorganization” as used by Jennifer Brown? How does it help to trace the family histories of the Métis?

Answer 161

-Matrilocal- man takes residence in with wives families. -Women’s skills/ productive capabilities passed onto her children. -Daughters remained in west and married there contributing to the growth of the metic population-Duel descent decide which ancestral roots they wish to define.-Women found ways to maintain organisational bias in home

Question 162

Describe the distinction between matrilocality and patrifocality. (Brown)

Answer 162

-Families large (6-12 kids) Father would selectively choose to raise some more than others. Daughters typically staying with mothers. Daughters unlikely to marry into Indian communities as they were daughters of officers-Patrifocality white fathers bringing into orbits of own life/heritage/family, matrilocality stayed in orbits of mothers life/ family/heritage

Question 163

When did the Métis start thinking of themselves as a “New Nation”? How did maternal filiation influence their thinking on this? (Brown)

Answer 163

-All have mothers. Progency of Indian Women, lived with mother.-Characters ranged in character, manners based on where educated (fathers influence, yet mothers similar in most circumstance)-Created a tribe of their own, entitled to own flag and property.

Question 164

Define the term “enculturation.” How were the Country-born enculturated in patrilocal families of European fur traders? (Van Kirk, pp. 207-208)

Answer 164

-Distinct cultural orientation from large Francophone community/metis. Paternal influence much more prominent.-Assimilation onto the Protestant world.-British fathers aided by church and school and colonial elite were able to suppress/ deny any identity to Indian connection. -Still deny positions based on racist white society.

Question 165

Using the daughters of the Alexander Ross family as an example, explain what usually happened to Country-born British-Indian women in Rupert’s Land. (Van Kirk, pp. 208-210)

Answer 165

they married white men to continue assimilation, and in the census became listed as white

Question 166

What was the attitude of the Red River colony élite toward Country-born children?

Answer 166

-Alexander Ross referred to them as fickle and destitute of steady purpose (had country children)-If married white person seen as complete and complete achievement.

Question 167

What does Van Kirk mean by James Ross’s “crisis of identity”? How did Ross’s actions in 1869-70 alienate British-Indian people and other Canadians in the Red River colony? (Van Kirk, pp. 213-216)

Answer 167

-he tried to prevent conflict between Canadians and the Metis
- even though he was anglicized he was confronted with Indian roots
- torn between the two communities
- crisis because they were not white or Metis

Question 168

Who were the voyageurs? What role did they play in the emergence of the Métis? (Berger)

Answer 168

-French traders who travelled by canoe inland to points West of the Great Lakes, wintered amongst Indians and took wives.

Question 169

How did the Nor’Westers facilitate the emergence of a Métis nationalism? (Berger)

Answer 169

-Earl of Selkirk set up agriculture colony which affected Nor’westers route and communication and access to Pemmican. Giverener prohibited.-Nor’westers and metis arrested McDonald and ran settlers out of Red River. -Battle of Seven oaks showed strength of metis. Nor’Westers encouraged to assert their rights against HBC-Historians believe they were dupes of Nor’wester conflict with HBC

Question 170

What arguments were used by the Métis to justify their claim to Aboriginal title? (Berger)

Answer 170

-Occupations of land which they hunted and insist it couldn’t be taken-Occupation and use of land extended farther back than their mothers-Other tribes acknowledge teir use and occupation of land-Trying to impeded white agriculture settlement of the territory they sought after

Question 171

Of what significance was the buffalo hunt in shaping the lives and identity of the Métis? (Berger)

Answer 171

-Agriculture settlement could not feed people of Red River, fur trade growing with more canoe men needing pemmican. As demand for pemmican grew so did metis and scale of the buffalo hunts.-Well calculated, strict and disciplined. Nothing ever seen before, men hunt and women/ children prepare (family affair)-Still did traditional hunting/ fishing and canoe and hunt continued.

Question 172

Who were the “Canada Firsters”? How did they try to influence events in the Red River colony in 1869? (Berger)

Answer 172

-Moved from Upper Canada (ottawa/ orangemen) moved to Red River to make English Speaking Protestent.-HBC sold to Canada made influence more in area

Question 173

Describe what is meant by the “Thomas Scott Affair.” How did it affect Louis Riel’s status in Canada after 1870? (Berger)

Answer 173

-Scott a Canadian firster executed by Riel.-Caused political firestorm on Ontario, orangeman murdered by a French Roman Catholic, victim of orange bigotry-Damaged metis cause

Question 174

What factors precipitated the Northwest Rebellion of 1885? (Berger)

Answer 174

-Jonn MacDonald achknowledge only as impediment to developement of transcontinental dominion. Federal government bad faith with land allocation for metis. Stringent limitation. -Crowd called upon Riel to defend against Fenian rates from Minnesota.-Government refused amnesty for Riel, outraged Quebec, Riel Left.-Red River dedicated only to commerce and agriculture, no need for metis. So moved to Saskatchewan and treaties confined Indians to reserves. Metis no land title or reserve. MacDonal refused their aboriginal claims.-Riel only political vocab for them. Riel threatened war, and forces came. MacDonald then gave script preventing them to join Riel.

Question 175

Louis Riel is considered by some historians to have been a self-serving opportunist whose delusions of grandeur led to the tragic events of 1885. Do you agree or disagree with this characterization of Louis Riel? Provide reasons for your answer.

Question 176

What similarities does Jacqueline Peterson present between the Métis at Red River and the Métis in the Great Lakes region? (Peterson, pp. 37-40)

Answer 176

• people moved to the area

Question 177

What was the impetus for the emergence of the Métis in the Great Lakes area? (Peterson, pp. 41-45)

Answer 177

towns were dependent on fur trade; towns were result of offspring of Canadian trade employees and Indian women

inability for the Governor General to control growing numbers of illegal voyageurs

intermarriage

Question 178

According to Peterson, what eventually led to the disintegration of Métis settlements in the Great Lakes area? (Peterson, p. 64)

Answer 178

the location was a liability; drowned in American settlement and capitalistic expansion