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Environmental Science > Unit 1 > Flashcards

Unit 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What is Ecology?

A

Ecology is the study of the relationships between living organisms, including humans and their physical environment.

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2
Q

Give an example of ecology

A

A food web in a forest environment

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3
Q

What is an ecosystem?

A

An ecosystem is a natural until made up of a community of living things and their habitats

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4
Q

What are biotic factors?

A

Biotic factors are living factors that influence an ecosystem

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5
Q

Give examples of biotic factors

A

Competition between species, disease, predation, food availability

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6
Q

What are abiotic factors?

A

Abiotic factors are non-living factors that influence an ecosystem

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7
Q

Give examples of abiotic factors

A

Temperature, light, soil pH

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8
Q

What is a habitat?

A

A habitat is the place an organism lives

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9
Q

What is population?

A

Population is a group of organisms of the same species

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10
Q

What is a community

A

A community is the sum of all populations of plants, animals and microorganisms living in an ecosystem.

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11
Q

What is an autotroph?

A

An autotroph is an organism capable of using photosynthesis as a source of energy.

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12
Q

What is a Niche?

A

A niche is the role an organism plays and resources it uses in an ecosystem.

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13
Q

What does bacteria do when it breaks down dead organic matter?

A

It releases nutrients back into the environment.

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14
Q

What is interdependence

A

Interdependence is the interaction of biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem.

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15
Q

What is a food chain?

A

A food chain is a sequence of organisms where each of them feed on a type of organism

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16
Q

What is the main source in a food chain?

A

The sun

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17
Q

What is a producer?

A

A producer is a green plant that produce its own food through photosynthesis.

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18
Q

What is a consumer?

A

A consumer is an organism that consume other organisms in order to gain energy.

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19
Q

What are the three types of consumers?

A
  • Herbivore
  • Carnivore
  • Omnivore
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20
Q

What do the arrows in a food chain show?

A

The transfer of energy (energy flow)

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21
Q

What are primary producers?

A

A primary producer is a green leaf plant that produces its own food.

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22
Q

What is a primary consumer?

A

A primary consumer is a herbivore that consumes a primary producer.

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23
Q

What is a secondary consumer?

A

A secondary consumer is typically a carnivore that consumes a primary consumer.

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24
Q

What is a tertiary (apex) consumer

A

A tertiary consumer is an animal at the top of the food chain that consumes a secondary consumer.

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25
Q

What are detritivores?

A

Detritivores are organisms that feed on dead plant and animal materials e.g. wood lice

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26
Q

What are decomposers?

A

Decomposers decompose waste materials but also make nutrients for the ecosystem.

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27
Q

What is ecological productivity?

A

Ecological productivity is the productivity of an ecosystem which is the rate of production of the amount of organic matter (biomass) accumulated per unit area in unit time.

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28
Q

What are the two main levels of ecological productivity?

A
  • Gross productivity

- Net productivity

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29
Q

What is gross productivity?

A

Gross productivity is the the measure of all photosynthesis that occurs in an ecosystem.

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30
Q

What is net productivity?

A

Net productivity is the energy which is left after losses.

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31
Q

How is energy lost?

A

Through movement, respiration, growth and heat.

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32
Q

What is an endotherm?

A

An endotherm is an organism which can control is internal body temperature (warm blooded).
Examples include mammals and birds.
Endotherms have a high metabolic rate so they need to eat more frequently to obtain energy.

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33
Q

What is an ectotherm?

A

An ectotherm is an organism which rely on its external environment for temperature controls instead of generating its own body heat (cold blooded).
Examples include most fish, reptiles and amphibians.
Ectotherm have a lower metabolic rate so feed less regularly

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34
Q

Why do ectotherms tend to have a longer food chain than endotherms?

A

Ectotherms do not use energy to regulate their own body temperature therefore there is more energy available for the next trophic level.

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35
Q

What is ecological efficiency?

A

Ecological efficiency is the percentage of biomass (organic matter) produced by one trophic level that is transferred and incorporated into biomass at the next topic level.

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36
Q

What is the equation to calculate ecological efficiency?

A

Biomass in higher trophic
—————————————- x 100
Biomass in lower trophic

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37
Q

What is density dependent factors?

A

Density dependent factors are interactions between organisms which reduce the population.

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38
Q

Give examples of density dependent factors.

A

Density dependent factors include:

  • food availability
  • food sustainability
  • rates of disease
  • predation
  • competition
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39
Q

What is Density independent factors?

A

Density independent factors are conditions such as natural disasters that will affect an ecosystem regardless of the number of species.

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40
Q

Give examples of density independent factors.

A

Density independent factors include:

  • increase in rainfall
  • lack of rain
  • increase in temperature
  • decrease in temperature
  • forest fires
  • earthquakes
  • volcanic eruptions
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41
Q

What are 4 ecological events that will affect population density?

A
  • births
  • deaths
  • emigration
  • immigration
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42
Q

What is carrying capacity?

A

Carrying capacity is the maximum population size of a species that the environment can naturally sustain

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43
Q

What is the name of the two models to show population growth?

A

The exponential growth model and the logistic growth model.

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44
Q

What are the features of a exponential growth model?

A
  • the graph will typically show a )-shaped curve
  • the population grows faster as it grows larger.
  • in nature, this growth is not sustainable as a population will eventually exceed resource availability or be affected by density dependent factors
  • population increases over time regardless of resources limits or abiotic factors
  • an example of this type of growth would be bacteria multiplying in a Petri dish.
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45
Q

What are the features of a logistic geothermal model?

A
  • population grows until it reaches carrying capacity
  • a realistic model of a population
  • the graph will typically show a s-shaped curve
  • the population may overshoot the carrying capacity but this is only temporarily
  • this model is more sustainable as it allows the environment to recover.
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46
Q

What are the two main types of competition?

A

Intra-specific competition

Inter-specific competition

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47
Q

What is inter-specific completion?

A

Interspecific competition is when two different species compete for the same resources

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48
Q

What is intra-specific competition?

A

Intra-specific completion is when members of the same species compete for the same resources.

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49
Q

What is symbiosis?

A

Symbiosis is the relationship between two different species that live closely together.

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50
Q

What are the three types of symbiosis?

A

Mutualism
Commensalism
Parasitism

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51
Q

What is mutualism?

A

Mutualism is when two species benefit from living in close proximity to one another

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52
Q

What is commensalism?

A

Commensalism is a relationship between work species where one benefits and the other is unaffected.

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53
Q

What is parasitism?

A

Parasitism is when there is an interaction between two species and one benefits whilst the other is harmed.

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54
Q

What is vegetation succession?

A

Succession is a sequence of changes in the types of species present in a community.

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55
Q

Why do organisms in vegetation succession develop?

A

The organisms drive change and make the environment more suitable for the next species and die out.

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56
Q

What is primary succession?

A

Primary succession takes place in an environment that has no vegetation or soil. This can take 1000+ years to take place.

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57
Q

What is secondary succession?

A

Secondary succession takes place in an environment that was once inhibited and has become barren but still contains soil nutrients.

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58
Q

What is a stage of succession called?

A

A sere

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59
Q

What is a hydrosere?

A

Hydrosere is plant succession that takes place in water.

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60
Q

What is a halosere?

A

Halosere is plant succession that takes place in a salt environment.

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61
Q

What is a psammosere?

A

Psammosere is plant succession that takes place in a sand environment.

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62
Q

What is plant succession?

A

Plant succession is a sequence of plant communities inhibiting the same site/areas.

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63
Q

What are the stages of plant succession?

A

Pioneer species- they break down rock to soil.
Intermediate community- adapts and develops
Climax community

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64
Q

What are the features of primary succession?

A
  • takes more time
  • no soil at the start
  • would occur after a volcano
  • lichens are the first plant
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65
Q

What are the features of secondary succession?

A
  • would occur after a forest fire
  • soil present at the start.
  • start is an area which once had life
  • takes less time
  • weeds are the first plants
66
Q

What are the features that occur in both primary and secondary succession?

A
  • results in a climax community
  • shrubs present
  • influence edaphic and climatic factors
67
Q

What are the features of a climax community?

A
  • high biomass (weight of living matter)
  • high biodiversity
  • high gross productivity
  • complex food webs
  • stability (is stable)
68
Q

What is a plagioclimax?

A

A plagioclimax is a habitat which has been influenced by humans and prevented from developing further.

69
Q

Case study:

what is muirburning?

A

Muirburning is when landowners burn off rough, hill grasses and long, mature heather to improve grazing for sheep and grouse.

70
Q

What are the advantages to heather muirburning?

A
  • Provides a habitat for birds and insects
  • Young heather is nutritious for animals such as cattle and sheep
  • Less chance of animals getting tics
  • Easier to see animals for shooting which leads to an increase in profit for landowners
  • more people will go grouse shooting
  • stops natural wildfires
71
Q

What are the disadvantages for heather muirburning?

A
  • Causes peat bogs (these store carbon) to dry out
  • Turns upland streams more acidic
  • Reduces the diversity of plants and animals
  • increase in soil temperature
  • increased CO2 released
  • Sheep can’t eat it when it’s long
  • Could cause wildfires
  • Causes and increased risk of flooding
72
Q

What are some advantages for reintroduction of certain animals?

A

White-tailed eagle (sea eagle):

  • It will keep pest populations down such as rabbits and grey squirrels which eat farmers crops
  • It will boost tourism as many people will want to go and see them
    fact: they generate up to £5 million per year to the Isle of Mull economy
  • Creates more jobs which helps boost the economy

Lynx:

  • Would keep Deer population down. Deer are causing massive damage to woodlands. They would be less deer damaging trees which would help stabilise ground and prevent mudslides
  • There would be more tourism as people would want to see the Lynx.
  • Deer’s would be damaging less woodland and there would local authorities would not need to invest money into fixing the damage
73
Q

What are so disadvantages for reintroduction of certain animals?

A

White tailed eagle (sea eagle):

  • Eat grouse meaning grouse number will go down and decrease in profit for grouse shooters.
  • They kill farmers Lambs leading to a decrease in profit for the farmers.

Lynx:

  • They kill farmers wild stock meaning there would be a decrease in profit for the farmers.
  • They may impose a threat to humans and pets but will not know until they are reintroduced.
74
Q

What is habitat fragmentation?

A

Habitat fragmentation is when parts of a habitat are destroyed, leaving behind smaller unconnected areas. This can occur naturally as a result of volcanic eruptions or fires but is normally due to human activity.

75
Q

What are keystone species?

A

A keystone species is are plants of animals that play a unique or critical role in the way an ecosystem functions.

76
Q

What is rewilding?

A

Rewilding is the term given to activities carried out by humans to accelerate habitat recovery.

77
Q

What are non-native species?

A

Non-native species are those that have been introduced deliberately or accidentally by humans.

78
Q

What are examples of rewilding?

A
  • Re-introduction of locally extinct species
  • The removal of non-native species
  • wildlife corridors
79
Q

What is Rhododendron Ponticum?

A

Rhododendron Ponticum is a plant living next to riverbanks and originates from southern Europe and south west Asia.

80
Q

What are the impacts of R.Ponticum?

A
  • Has a thick leafy canopy which eliminates other native species due to lack of sunlight.
  • Their canopy cuts off light to the streams which can affect aquatic organisms.
81
Q

How to stop R.Ponticum from being produced?

A
  • Cutting it down before flowering

- Inject the stumps of plant with herbicides

82
Q

What are Sika deer?

A

Sika deer are a species of deer than destroy woodland habitats and are eating farmers crops and originate from Eastern Asia.

83
Q

What are the impacts of Sika deer?

A
  • Damage to woodland
  • Like to eat farmers crops
  • Carry bovine TB which can spread to livestock
  • They cross breed with native red deer and weakens genetic integrity.
84
Q

How to decrease the number of Sika deer?

A
  • Introduce a predator i.e. Lynx or wolf
  • Increase hunting licenses
  • Cull - kill when the numbers are too high
85
Q

What are some examples of pollution/sources of pollution?

A
  • Carbon dioxide - methane - oil spills
  • ozone - nuclear waste - sulfur dioxide
  • nitrous oxide - sewage leaks - CFC’s
  • plastics - burning fossil fuels
  • noise, visual, sound and light pollution
86
Q

What are the two main types of pollution?

A
  • Point source pollution

- Diffuse pollution

87
Q

What is point source pollution?

A

Point source pollution is discharged from a single location usually a pipe or chimney or other outlet. Easier to identify and manage.

88
Q

What is diffuse pollution?

A

Diffuse pollution arises from land use activities on spread areas that have no specific point of discharge. Harder to pinpoint and manage.

89
Q

What are the three main areas of concern for pollution?

A
  • Sewage and wastewater
  • Infrastructure
  • Light pollution
90
Q

What is Biological oxygen demand (BOD)?

A

Biological oxygen demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen used by microorganisms in the biological process of breaking down organic matter in water.

91
Q

What does a high BOD suggest?

A

That there is a high level of pollution in the water.

92
Q

What does a low BOD suggest?

A

That there is a low level of pollution in the water.

93
Q

What is an indicator species?

A

An indicator species is a species whose presence or absence reflects a specific environmental condition, habitat or community.

94
Q

What is eutophication?

A

Eutrophication is the release of large amounts of organic matter or phosphate or nitrate into water resulting in ultimately in the lowering of the dissolved oxygen concentration.

95
Q

Explain the process of eutrophication?

A
  1. To increase crop yields, farmers add fertilisers to the soil e.g. nitrogen contained in the form of nitrate or ammonium compounds plus phosphorus or potassium.
  2. Fertiliser are soluble in water and will dissolve in rain
  3. The rain water containing the fertilisers will wash into streams, rivers and lakes
  4. The nitrogen encourages the growth of water plants and algae (which will form algal bloom. This will prevent sunlight from reaching the plants which will die).
  5. Many of the plants and algae are eaten but excess will die
  6. Decomposing bacteria break down the dead plants and algae and increase in numbers.
  7. The increasing population of bacteria use up the oxygen in the water
  8. Fish and other animals suffocate because of the lack of oxygen and the water becomes ecologically dead.
96
Q

What are some of the methods of control of fertilisers?

A
  • Reduce the use of fertilisers:
    • Introduce specialised schemes such as nitrogen vulnerable zones (NVS) where farming in areas susceptible to eutrophication have restrictions placed on the amount, timing of application and procedures for the application of fertilisers
  • convert to organic farming.
97
Q

What are pesticides?

A

Pesticides are chemical compounds that are used to kill pests, including insects, rodents, fungi and unwanted plants (weeds). They are sprayed onto the land and can dissolve in rainwater.

98
Q

What is bioaccumulation?

A

Bioaccumulation is the gradual build up of toxins in the tissue of a living organism over time.

99
Q

What is biomagnification?

A

Biomagnification is the gradual build up of toxins which passes from one trophic level to the other. This affects the apex predator the most as they eat the most and therefore will build up a higher level of toxins.

100
Q

What is the Scottish Natural Heritage (Nature Scot)?

A

Nature Scot is an agency hat advises the Scottish government on all matters relating to the natural heritage. They can create SSSI’s, create nature/species plans, manage woodlands and forests and manage invasive species.

101
Q

What is the Scottish Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA)?

A

SEPA is Scotland’s principle environmental regulator, protecting and improving Scotland’s environment. SEPA can fine people and enforce laws, advise the Scottish government, educate the public and research and monitor the environment.

102
Q

What is Scottish Forestry?

A

Scottish forestry(SF) is an agency that is responsible for the forestry policies, support and legislation to private landowners in Scotland.

103
Q

What is Forestry and Land Scotland?

A

Forestry and Land Scotland looks after, manages and promotes Scotland national forests and lands

104
Q

What is Marine Scotland (MS)?

A

Marine Scotland (MS) is a directorate of the Scottish Government that manages Scotland’s seas and freshwater fisheries. They are responsible for things such as sea licensing.

105
Q

What is a SSSI?

A

A Site of Special Scientific interest is an area of particular interest to science due to a rare or important geological or physiological features and is protected by the government.

106
Q

What is a Marine Protected Area?

A

A Marine Protected Area (MPA) is a protected are of a sea, ocean or estuary. A MPA restricts human activity for conservation purposes. MPA’s protect a range of important, rare or threatened habitats or species and people are unable to fish there.

107
Q

What is a Hydrograph?

A

A hydrograph is a tool used by agencies such as SEPA to plan for flood situations. A hydrograph shows how a river responds after a period of rainfall.

108
Q

What does a rising limb show on a hydrograph?

A

A rising limb shows an increase in rainwater entering a river.

109
Q

What is the lag time on a hydrograph?

A

The lag time is the difference between peak rainfall and peak discharge.

110
Q

What does the falling/recession limb show on a hydrograph?

A

The falling limb shows a decrease in rainwater entering a river.

111
Q

What is the base flow on a hydrograph?

A

The base flow is the typical discharge without the rainfall.

112
Q

What is the peak flow on a hydrograph?

A

The base flow is the highest amount of discharge over the period of time.

113
Q

What is the discharge of a river?

A

The discharge of a river is the amount of water in river, cubic metres per second.

114
Q

What are the factors affecting a hydrograph?

A
  • Size of drainage basin
  • Vegetation
  • Valley side steepness
  • Soil type
115
Q

How will the size of a drainage basin affect a hydrograph?

A

Large drainage basin:
The basin receives more precipitation than the smaller basins therefore have larger peak flow and due to the larger size will have a longer lag time as the water has to cover more distance to reach the main river.

small drainage basin:
The basin receives less precipitation than the larger basins therefore have a smaller peak flow.

116
Q

How will the vegetation affect a hydrograph?

A

Vegetation present:
The vegetation intercepts the precipitation creating a shallow rising limb and lengthening the lag time.

No vegetation present:
No vegetation causes a sharp rising limb with a short lag time.

117
Q

How will the steepness of a valley affect a hydrograph?

A

Steep valley:
Flow can be faster down a steep slope creating a steeper rising limb and shorter lag time.

Gentle valley:
Flow is slower down a gentle slope creating a shallow rising limb and longer lag time.

118
Q

How will the rock type affect a hydrograph?

A

Permeable rock:
Water can be soaked into rock therefore there is little overland flow and therefore a gentle rising limb and long lag time.

Impermeable rock:
Concrete and tarmac are impermeable rock meaning water cannot be soaked into the rock. This means that there is a collection of water causing a sharp rising limb and a short lag time.

119
Q

Why do we sample an ecosystem?

A
  • To find out what animals and plants live there.

- Find out how abundant (rare/common) they are.

120
Q

What are the techniques used to investigate the organisms know as?

A

Sampling techniques

121
Q

When sampling an ecosystem, what components are sampled?

A

Density, distribution, relative abundance and frequency.

122
Q

What is a simple sampling technique?

A

A simple (random) technique is used to study an area that is fairly uniform such as a field or stream. Organisms are sampled randomly e.g. quadrats all over a field.

123
Q

What is a systematic sampling technique?

A

A systematic technique is used when you want to investigate a gradual change in species present. Organisms measured at regular intervals e.g. along a coastline. Organisms are sampled at regular intervals e.g. along a transect

124
Q

What is a stratified sampling technique?

A

A stratified technique is used to measure different areas within a habitat. e.g. a grassland area with a patch of bracken/shrubs. The areas are separated into different habitats (stratas) and samples taken proportionally from each.

125
Q

What is a transect?

A

A transect is a line across a habitat, the number of species can be observed and recorded at regular intervals.

126
Q

What is a point transect?

A

A point transect is when readings are taken systematic or random locations along the tape which is extended to make a transect across a site.

127
Q

What is a line transect?

A

A line transect is a tape laid across the ground between two points to show the distribution of organisms. Organisms are counted that are touching the line (rigorous and confined).

128
Q

What is a belt transect?

A

A belt transect records all species found between two lines. This is used to estimate the distribution of organisms in a certain area and gives information on abundance and presence and absence of species

129
Q

What are the two categories of sampling?

A

Qualitative and Quantitative techniques

130
Q

What are qualitative techniques?

A

Qualitative techniques assess the presence and absence of a species and/o provides a species list.

131
Q

What are quantitative techniques?

A

Quantitative techniques provide data about numbers and densities (population)

132
Q

What are quadrats?

A

Quadrats are a square frame that is placed on the ground and the number of organisms present in the quadrat is counted.

133
Q

What are the possible sources of errors for using quadrats?

A
  • Quadrats are not placed at random

- Part of a plant may be half in or out of the quadrat.

134
Q

What are the solutions/precautions to the sources of errors?

A
  • Quadrats are placed at random and are repeatedly throughout the sample are.
  • Make a rule that plants that are half in the quadrat are counted.
135
Q

What is tree beating?

A

Tree beating are used to identify organisms living in a tree. The tree is hit using a stick and there is a sheet below the tree to catch the organisms.

136
Q

What are the sources of error when tree beating?

A
  • Some organisms may fly out, crawl out or fall out

- Not enough samples are taken from different branches

137
Q

How to improve/make the results more reliable from tree beating?

A
  • Use a large sheet/ tray to make sure all organisms are collected.
  • Collect organisms by hand to ensure no organisms escape the sheet/tray
    reliability:
  • Keep the time spent beating the tree the same
  • Use the same stick to beat each tree
138
Q

What is a pitfall trap?

A

Pitfall traps are used to sample small invertebrates living on the ground. I consists of a container which is sunk into the ground which is covered by leaves and vegetation. The insects then go into the vegetation and fall into the trap unable to get out.

139
Q

What are some of the sources of error

A
  • Animals can crawl out of the container
  • Bird could eat the trapped animals
  • Some animals may start to eat each other
140
Q

What are some the the solutions to the sources of errors for the pitfall trap

A
  • Disguise the opening with a lid to stop the birds eating the sample
    -Check traps regularly or put ethanol in the bottom of the container.
    reliability:
  • Use the same length of time between checks and each experiment
  • Use the same container for each experiment
  • Use the same volume of liquid.
141
Q

What is a tullgren funnel?

A

A Tullgren funnel is used to sample tiny organism living in the soil. A soil sample is taken with creatures and placed into the funnel which contains a bright light. The creatures will move away from the light through the sieve and into a beaker.

142
Q

What are the possible sources of error for tullgren funnel?

A
  • The sieve is too small for creatures to fit through.

- Soil sample is too thick and may contain many organism

143
Q

What are the precautions/ways to ensure reliability while using the tullgren funnel?

A
  • Use a thin layer of soil
  • Use a mesh with larger size holes.
    Reliability:
  • Same brightness of lightbulb used (wattage)
  • Same mesh size used
  • Same size of funnel used
144
Q

What is the kick sweep method?

A

The kick sweep method is used to measure the organisms living in freshwater stream or pond. A pond net is held at a fixed position facing upstream. The person taking the sample then kicks the pebbles on the river bed to dislodge the invertebrates to catch them in the net.

145
Q

What are the possible sources of error when using the kick sweep method?

A
  • Small animals may escape through the holes of the mesh
146
Q

What are the precautions/ways to ensure reliability when using the kick sweep method?

A 
- Choose a net with a finer mesh 
Reliability:
- Use the Same net which samples
- Same number of kicks used
- Same period of time while taking the sample
147
Q

What is capture mark recapture? (quantitative)

A

Capture mark recapture is a technique used to estimate the population size of an animal species. Firstly, the animals are trapped e.g. using pitfall traps. Then the animals are marked using a tag or stamp and then released back into the environment. The traps are then set and the number is marked and unmarked animals caught in the traps are recorded.

148
Q

Why is the capture mark recapture technique does not give a very good estimate?

A
  • The animals marked may die or be eaten

- Doesn’t take into account the animals that migrate.

149
Q

What is the equation for the capture mark recapture technique?

A

Lincoln index:
1st sample x 2nd sample
———————————————
2nd sample previously marked

150
Q

What are paired statement keys an example of?

A

Qualitative sampling techniques

151
Q

What is Simpson diversity index a measure of?

A

It is a measure of diversity which takes into account the number of species present as well as the relative abundance of each species.

152
Q

What are the here types of biodiversity?

A
  • Genetic diversity- the variety of genetic characteristics involved in the genetic make up of a species
  • Species diversity- the number of different species and proportion of each species in an ecosystem
  • ecosystem diversity- the number of distinct ecosystems in an area
153
Q

What is biodiversity?

A

Biodiversity is all the different kinds of life in one area. It is the variety if species and ecosystems in earth.

154
Q

What is the Trent biotic index?

A

Compares the relative frequency of indicator species and provide an overall assessment of environmental health.

155
Q

What are some of the sources of error when measure the moisture of soil?

A

Moisture form a previous measurement may be left on the probe affecting the next reading.

156
Q

What are the precautions when taking soil moisture?

A

Wipe and dry the probe between readings.

157
Q

What are the possible sources of error when measuring the light intensity?

A
  • The observer may cast a shadow on the light meter

- Light intensity may change depending on cloud cover

158
Q

What are the precautions taken when measuring light intensity?

A
  • Stand well back rod the meter

- Take all reading as near to the same time as possible

159
Q

What are the possible sources of error when measuring soil pH?

A
  • Soil may remain on the probe after taking a false result for the next sample.
160
Q

What are some of the precautions taken when measuring soil pH?

A

Clean and dry the probe between readings.

161
Q

What are the possible sources of error when measuring soil temperature?

A

The probe may remain at previous temperature.

162
Q

What are some of the precautions taken when taking the soil temperature?

A

Allow the probe to return to air temperature between readings.

Environmental Science (4 decks)

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