understanding Research Flashcards
Define a Symbol
An object that stands for something else. The most symbolic aspect of culture is language.
Define Research
A process in which a researcher combines a set of principles,outlooks, and ideas (methodology) with a collection of specific practices, techniques, and strategies (method of inquiry) to produce knowledge
Ontology
studies on the way we understand the nature of being(reality)
Epistemology
studies on knowledge and how to pursue knowledge
Positivism
Social and natural sciences should be studied in a similar manner
Positivism
Social and natural sciences should be studied in a similar manner
Causal Explanation
A theoretical statement that is expressed in terms of causes and effects
Temporal Order
The cause must come before the effect
Temporal Order
The cause must come before the effect
Eliminating Alternatives
An causal relationship is not due to an alternative but unrecognized cause
Agency
the ability to make independent choices and act
Agency
the ability to make independent choices and act
Anonymity
Research participants remain anonymous or nameless One of the common solutions:Referring to participants only by a code number or specific names,the latter used after obtaining written permission
Confidentiality
Information has participant names attached, but the researcher holds it in confidence or keeps it secret from the public
Soft Data
subjective, open to interpretation, maps, photographs, symbols, artifacts
Soft Data
subjective, open to interpretation, maps, photographs, symbols, artifacts
Hard Data
Numbers in measurements, charts, proportions, diagrams, formulas
Qualitative Design Issue
(The Language of Cases and Contexts) Ideas instead of variables; observing and documenting events instead of measuring for production of numbers
Quantitative Design Issues (issue variable
A concept or its empirical measure that can take on multiple values (e.g. marital status).
Hypothesis
The statement from a casual explanation or a proposition that has at least one independent and one dependent variable,but it has yet to be empirically tested.
Ecological Fallacy
Something that appears to be a causal explanation but is not. It occurs because of a confusion about units of analysis. A researcher has empirical evidence about an association for large-scale units but overgeneralizes to make theoretical statements about association among small-scale units or individuals.
Reductionism
Something that appears to be a causal explanation but is not. It occurs because of a confusion about units of analysis. A researcher has empirical evidence about an association at the level of individual behaviour but overgeneralizes to make theoretical statements about very large-scale units.
Reductionism
Something that appears to be a causal explanation but is not. It occurs because of a confusion about units of analysis. A researcher has empirical evidence about an association at the level of individual behavior but overgeneralizes to make theoretical statements about very large-scale units.
Tautology
Circular reasoning where the second part of a statement is rephrased to repeat the first.
Criterion validity
agrees with an external source-Concurrent validity: agrees with a pre-existing measure-Predictive validity: agrees with future behaviour
Criterion validity
agrees with an external source-Concurrent validity: agrees with a pre-existing measure-Predictive validity: agrees with future behavior
Literature Review
A systematic examination of previously published studies on a research question, issue or method that a researcher undertakes and integrates together to prepare for conducting a study or to bring together and summarize the “state of the field
Abstract
A short summary on the first page of a scholarly journal article or included together with other abstracts at the beginning of the issue.
Meta-Analysis
A study undertaken by researchers in which they analyze the results from available/existent studies on a given topic by using a quantitative overview
Annotated Bibliography
A list of sources pertaining to a specific topic which includes 1) full citation information; 2) a summary of the article (incl. methods and findings); 3) evaluative comments about the quality of the research done.
Legal Harm
loss of or damage to a person’s right, property, or physical or mental well-being
The Language of Cases and Contexts
Ideas instead of variables; observing and documenting events instead of measuring for production of numbers
Grounded Theory
Conceptualization and operationalization occur simultaneously with data collection and preliminary data analysis by taking the inductive method and building theory grounded in data. It is always open to the unexpected.
The Context is Critical
Focus on the “bigger picture”, the complex surroundings referring to your empirical data; on the shifting meanings in different cultures and historical eras
Case and Process
Examine certain cases over time as a sequence of cases depending on numerous factors
Interpretation
Assigning significance or a coherent meaning to something
Variable
A concept or its empirical measure that can take on multiple values (e.g. marital status)
Periodicals
•Scholarly Journals: How to recognize them? (peer-reviewed, double blind review, empirical research findings)•Mass-market publications•Popularized science magazines
Dissertations
Reports on original research, bound and stored in the library of the Ph.D. granting institution (university)
Government Documents &Policy Reports
Governmental and institutional reports, issued and stored as library holdings
Citation
Details of a scholarly report’s location (author, date,title, book/journal, page number) that help people find it quickly
Abstract
A short summary on the first page of a scholarly journal article or included together with other abstracts at the beginning of the issue.
Meta-Analysis
A study undertaken by researchers in which they analyze the results from available/existent studies on a given topic by using a quantitative overview.
Physical Harm
Rare, 3-5%, biomedical research, moral and legal responsibilities of the researcher
Psychological Abuse
Inducing discomfort, stress, embarrassment and anxiety (Philip Zimbardo’sprison experiment)
Loss of Self-Esteem
To place people in situations where they face social pressure to deny their convictions
Legal Harm
To place participants in situations where they are at increased risk of arrest; what is the range of ethical responsibilities and controversies (The Laud Humphrey’s tearoom trade study)
Scientific Research
Data: quantitative (numbers); qualitative (in words, sounds, pictures, visual images, objects); empirical evidence (through our senses – touch, sight, hearing, smell, taste
Longitudinal Research
Examines the features of people orother units at multiple points in time
Time-series study
Examines different people or cases over time (the type of info does not change)
Panel study
Observes exactly the same group or organization across multiple time points
Cohort study (a special type of Panel Study)
Focuses on a category of peoples who share a similar life experience in a specific period
Case studies
Examines in depth many features of a few cases over a duration of time
Experiments
Examination of the effect of created situations on participants
Focus Group
A group interview in an open discussion
Field Research
Observation of people in a natural setting
Existing Statistics
Examination of numerical information from governmental documents
Content Analysis
Exploration of written or symbolic material in terms of implied meanings
Historical Research
Examination of past eras across cultures
Survey
Systematical questionnaire of a set of questions
Qualitative Interview
A one-on-one interview
Ontology
Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, becoming, existence, or reality. It is part of the major branch of philosophy known as metaphysics. Ontology deals with questions about what things exist or can be said to exist, and how such entities can be grouped according to similarities and differences.
epistemology
Epistemology is the study of knowledge. Three epistemological factors that contribute to knowledge acquisition are truth, belief and justification.
methodology
a system of methods used in a particular area of study or activity
research fatigue
Research fatigue is the process or state in which individuals or groups tire of engaging in research or resist and avoid participation in any further research
Inductive approach in research
inductive approaches are generally associated with qualitative research, whilst deductive approaches are more commonly associated with quantitative research
10 Basic ethical principles in research
- Minimizing the risk of harm
- Obtaining informed consent
- Protecting anonymity and confidentiality
- Avoiding deceptive practices
- Providing the right to withdraw
Laud Humphreys’s tearoom trade study
Legal harm is putting participants at risk of getting arrested. In this case homosexuality was banned and there was no consent given to the participants by the studier.
Philip Zimbardo’s prison experiment
Ethical issues, harm and abuse are physical harms from the aggressive nature of the participants.
Stanley Milgram’s obedience study
Ethical issues from the study come from the extreme emotional stress experienced by the participants.
Media Myths
Sources of media (TV, movies, twitter, etc.) perpetuating common misconceptions or hoaxes
Over-generalization
When some evidence supports a belief which one then assumes applies to all cases
Selective Observation
occurs when people or events seek out evidence which support current beliefs
Premature Closure
When you feel you have the answer and thus ignore future information
Halo Effect
occurs when we overgeneralize positive or prestigious behaviors for a favorable impression. Prejudice of sources
Scientific Community
is a collection of people who practice science and a set of norms, behaviors and attitudes
Scientific Method
refers to ideas, rules, techniques and approaches used by the scientific community
Academic
advances fundamental knowledge about the social world
Applied
address a specific concern or to offer solutions to a problem
Public Sociology
refers to researchers who engage a wider audience
3 Purposes of Research:
Exploration - become familiar with facts, settings and concerns.
Description - Provide background or context of a situation
Explanation - Test a theory’s prediction
Exploratory Research
examines a new area to question to address in the future. Lee and Brotman examined migration experiences of sexual minority refugees to Canada.
Descriptive Research
presents specific details of a situation. Rhjin, Quosai, and Lero studied characteristics of undergrad students.
Cross-sectional Research
A single point in time
Macrosocial
Focuses on population. Thibodeau studied suicide morality rate in Canada. Curits and Andersen studied economic inequality across 24 countries.
Microsocial
focuses on individuals
Mesosocial
the rule of social organizations and institutions
Empirical Generalizations
derived from theories that offer a simple statement about a pattern among multiple concepts.
Middle-range theory
offers theories about limited aspects of social life.
Paradigms
integrated set of assumptions
Positivist (nomothetic)
explains use law or law-like principles
Interpretivist
uses a construct of social reality
Idiographic
means specific description explaining an aspect of the social world in a highly detailed setting
Verstehen
is the desire for a researcher to get inside the world views of those they study
Deductive Approach
abstract, logical relationship among concepts to move towards concrete evidence
Inductive Approach
detailed observations of the world to move towards generalized ideas
Temporal Order
condition means that a cause must come before an effect
