Umayyads Flashcards
Muhammad’s birth
c. 570
Muhammad’s death
632
Start of Islamic calendar
622
Date of Muhammad’s flight to Medina (Hijra)
First caliph
Muhammad’s companion Abu Bakr (r. 632-34)
What prompted the divide in Muslims between Sunnis and Shi’ites?
Discussions over the legitimacy of Muhammad’s successors.
Which important disagreement occurred over a caliph’s legitimacy?
Moawiya’s (military governor of Damascus) rejection of Ali’s (fourth caliph) legitimacy.
What occurred during the fourth caliphate?
Moawiya and Ali prepared to battle in order to show who had the greatest strength=greatest legitimacy, but Ali quickly renounced.
Moawiya saw this as an act of cowardice that confirmed Ali’s illegitimacy.
This is arguably the beginning of the Sunnis (Moawiya) and Shias (Ali)
Where were the early mosques built?
Old sites of churches or temples. There was also repurposing of the materials.
They were rather simple (large, square area) and based on Muhammad’s house in Medina
What was the first dynastic power of Islam?
The Umayyads, founded by Moawiya in 661
Umayyad Caliphate
661–750.
Capital in Damascus
Overthrown by the Abbasids.
Map: Umayyad Caliphate at its greatest extent.
Where was the Umayyad Caliphate centered?
Damascus
What was the status of other religions during the Umayyad Caliphate?
Christians and Jews were allowed to practice their religion.
When was the Dome of the Rock built?
688-691 during the rule of Abd al-Malik
Where is the Dome of the Rock located?
Temple Mount, Jerusalem
This is a significant site, as the temples of Solomon and Herod were located in Temple Mount (in Mount Moriah)
Which events are associated with the Dome of the Rock?
Muhammad’s meeting of other prophets and his ascension to Heaven (mi’raj) on the Rock, which is surrounded by the octagonal ambulatory of this building
In Judeo-Christian tradition, the Rock is the site of the almost-sacrifice of Isaac
Which architectural practices does the Dome of the Rock follow?
- In its major characteristics it follows the practices of Christian Late Antiquity architecture
- Resemblance to Christian chapels of the Ascension and Anastasis in Jerusalem.
- The form of the architectural dome follows Byzantine models for churches
Image: Ascension Edicule in Jerusalem.
Which influences can be seen in the Dome of the Rock?
- Byzantine technique constructions like the arches on piers and columns, wooden domes, grilled windows, and masonry of stone and brick
- Byzantine mosaic techniques and its decoration which were common in Christian mosaics in Syria and Palestine
- Sasanian iconographic elements
- Palmettes, wings, and flowers of Iranian origin on mosaics
http://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2012/byzantium-and-islam/blog/where-in-the-world/posts/dome-of-the-rock
Which readings have been ascribed to the Dome of the Rock?
- Its location on Mount Moriah…
- Its Byzantine and Sasanian decoration within vegetal motifs…
- Its physical dominance over the Jerusalem landscape, and
- Its Qur’an inscriptions, as symbolism of the victory of Islam and its completion of God’s message…
- Competition in splendour with Christian sanctuaries in Jerusalem, and
- Celebration of the Umayyad dynasty
Ettinghausen, Grabar, and Jenkins-Madina. Islamic Art and Architecture, 650-1250.
Which inscriptions are found on the Dome of the Rock?
- Qur’anic verses, such as the bismilla (phrase that begins each verse) and the shahada
- Additionally, verses that state that Jesus is a prophet and not divine (emphasis of Muslim doctrine over Christian one)
- The inscription is 240m long.
What has been significantly replaced in the Dome of the Rock?
- The exterior mosaics and marble with Turkish tiles
- Replaced by the Ottomans in the 16th century.
What can be concluded from the architectural and decorative influences seen in the Dome of Rock?
That the Umayyad empire drew upon features from the whole area it had conquered, combining them to create an artistic vocabulary of its own.
What desire did the Umayyad Caliphs have with the buildings they constructed?
To emulate the splendor of churches in Syria-Palestine
Which decorative principles did the mosaics of Dome of the Rock introduce to Islamic art?
- Non-realistic use of realistic shapes
- Anti-naturalistic combination of naturalistic forms
- Continuous variety
What this means is that there was a combination and transformation of forms and themes of the motifs seen in the mosaics
al-Walid I
Ruled from 705-15
Built mosques in Damascus, Medina and Jerusalem
When and where was the Great Mosque of Damascus built?
- 705-15 under al-Walid I on the site of a previous Byzantine church.
- Bc the Muslims took over the temenos (sacred enclosure) in Damascus, where church of John the Baptist had been built.
Which influences can be seen in the Great Mosque of Damascus?
- Greco-Roman, such as in the basilica conception of the prayer hall, since columns were repurposed from the previous building
- Syrian, as all elements of construction follow traditional architure from Syria (Ettinghausen et al.)
Image: Prayer hall
Describe the overall plan of the Great Mosque of Damascus
- Courtyard surrounded by porticoes on three sides
- Fourth side is the qibla wall with four mihrabs
- Three aisles cut by an axial nave with a dome
- Three minarets: two southern ones on each edge and a northern one in the middle (built later)
What is the octagonal construction in the courtyard of the Great Mosque of Damascus?
“Dome of the Treasury”
Symbolic or real treasury of the city
Built in 789 by Abbasid rulers according to Burns (2005)
The mihrab of the Great Mosque of Damascus
- According to Ettinghausen et al., it is the earliest known concave mihrab
- Before this mihrab, it is not know that previous mosques had mihrabs
- Religious symbolism: Ettinghausen et al. suggest that when the mihrab appeared (first in the mosque of Medina) it symbolized the place where the first imam stood.
- This element spread quickly to other mosques thanks to the foundations of al-Walid I
Axial nave of the Great Mosque of Damascus
- According to Ettinghausen et al., it first appeared in Umayyad “imperial” mosques to emphasize the area for the prince
Mosaics on Great Mosque of Damascus
- Carved marble window-grilles with patterns loosely inspired by Late Antique floor mosaics
- Wall mosaic for which the caliph seems to have obtained artists and materials from Byzantium.
- Human and animal figures are conspicuously absent, indicating that a distaste for figural ornament in a religious context had already taken root.
When was the al-Aqsa Mosque built?
705, expanded by Abd al-Malik I and his son al-Walid
Where is the al-Aqsa Mosque located?
Temple Mount, Jerusalem
Which event is associated with the al-Aqsa Mosque?
The isra: Muhammad’s night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem
Referenced in the Qur’an as the masjid al-Aqsa; literally, the farthest mosque
Muslim conquest of Iberian Peninsula
From 711-?
New territories were called al-Andalus.
What was the center of al-Andalus?
Qurtuba (Córdoba)
Umayyad Emirate
756-929, Qurtuba.
Quasi-independent of the new caliphate (the Abbasids)
Why was the Umayyad Emirate established?
- The Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus was overthrown
- The last heir ‘Abd al-Rahman I fled to Spain
- Established himself as Emir in Qurtuba
‘Abd al-Rahman I
r. 756-88
Which two landmarks were constructed in Qurtuba after the establishment of the Qurtuba Emirate?
Umayyad Alcázar and Aljama Mosque
When was the Great Mosque of Córdoba built?
785-987
What style of mosque does the Great Mosque of Córdoba follow?
Hypostyle (many columns) with repeated geometry, as seen in the hall
Which influences are seen in the Great Mosque of Córdoba?
- Horseshoe arch, common architectural element from the Visigoths, who ocuppied the area in the 6th century
- Two-colored voussoirs of Byzantine tradition (stripes)
Image: Horseshoe arch
What expansions were made to the Great Mosque of Córdoba?
- The first additions were made by Abd al-Rahman (r. 833-52)
- The second additions by al-Hakam II (r. 961-76)
- The third by al-Mansur (minister) in 987
- The rest by various Umayyad princes from the 9th and 10th centuries.
Describe the main effects of the inside of Great Mosque of Córdoba
- Effect of kineticism inside of the mosque because of the patterns in the arches; an animated space
- Disconnect because of the Gotic cathedral built in the middle of the hall in 1517 (its verticality against the horizontality of the mosque)
Mihrab of al-Hakam II in Great Mosque of Córdoba
Leads to a maqsura, or royal screen, which was originally designed to shield a worshipping ruler from assassins.
What is a polylobed arch?
- Arch with more than one lobe.
- In the Great Mosque of Córdoba, the arches interlock and create a complex spatial pattern. They function both as supports and ornaments.
- Addition made by al-Hakam II.
Describe the plan of the Great Mosque of Córdoba
- Courtyard surrounded on three sides by a portico
- Fourth side with seventeen naves on sixteen arcades
Did the Umayyans reclaim their right to Caliphate?
Yes, in 929 during the reign of ‘Abd al-Rahman III
Umayyad Caliphate 2.0
929-1031
Made Qurtuba an important intellectual center
‘Abd al-Rahman III
r. 912-961
What did Abd al-Rahman III do for the arts?
- Established city west of Qurtuba: Madinat al-Zahra
- Made minaret of Aljama Mosque final height of 40m (951-2)
Aspects of Umayyad palace life
- The most important palaces (qasr) were built in cities but they have disappeared
- “Desert palaces” were also built outside of urban sets.
- These buildings were probably agricultural estates, rural villas, summer residences and hunting lodges for the governing class.
Caravanserai
an inn with a central courtyard for travellers in the desert regions of Asia or North Africa.
Khirbat al-Mafjar
- Fortified palace complex
- Palace, mosque, bathhouse, audience hall
- Richly decorated
- Located in Jericho
- Considered to have been constructed by al-Walid II (r. 743–744)
Khirbat al-Mafjar bathhouse
- Decorated with a stucco statue of man in Persian dress. Possibly the caliph.
- Entrance surmounted by a dome on pendentives, decorated with figures of half-naked women (Sasanian influence)
Khirbat al-Mafjar mosaics
- Visual language familiar to the Byzantine realm in its mosaic floor
Image: Hunting scene on floor of the reception hall
Influences of Khirbat al-Mafjar
- Byzantine in its mosaic floor
- Sasanian in its decoration in the stucco technique
- Possible connection with Egypt since the building unit employed suggests the involvement of workmen familiar with measurements used in Coptic constructions.
