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VCE Psychology > U3AOS2 - Memory > Flashcards

U3AOS2 - Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

processes of memory

A

encoding
storage
retrieval

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2
Q

encoding

A

the process of putting information into a form which will allow for it to fit in with your personal storage system
- changes into electromagnetic code

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3
Q

storage

A

keeping the information in an organisation way to allow us to recover our memories

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4
Q

retrieval

A

the process of getting information from our memory back

- human memories are rough copies rather than exact information replaced

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5
Q

Atkinson-Shiffrens Multi Storage Model (ASMS model)

A
  • describes three stores of memory that are separate but function simultaneously to create our ability to encode, store and retrieve information
  • sensory
  • short term
  • long term
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6
Q

sensory memory

A
  • very brief memory / information enters the register to create our ability to encode, store and retrieve
  • 1/4 > 1/2 second
  • capacity (all sensory experience)
  • sense specific encoding (different stores for every sense)
  • includes; visual, audio, taste, touch and smell
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7
Q

short term memory

A
  • limited store which can be transferred to long term memory
  • 0-18 seconds
  • capacity 7 +/- 2 items
  • encoding is mainly audiotory
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8
Q

long term memory

A
  • a store of memory with virtually limitless capacity
  • needs retrieval to bring it back to awareness
  • unlimited capacity / duration
  • mainly semantic encoding (visual and audio)
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9
Q

ASMS model strengths

A
  • accounts for primacy and recency effects
  • influential and has generated a lot of research into memory
  • supported by studies of amnesiacs
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10
Q

ASMS model weaknesses

A
  • oversimplified
  • both long and short term memory are more complex
  • doesn’t cover multiple areas of LTM
  • suggests rehearsal helps transfer into LTM (isn’t essential)
  • criticised for being too one way
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11
Q

sensory memory

A

first stage of memory where info from environment is received by the senses

  • unlimited capacity with a brief duration
  • have a sensory store for each of the senses
  • if the info doesn’t get attention paid to it it won’t enter our awareness
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12
Q

sensory memory functions

A
  • prevents us from being overwhelmed by the huge amounts of incoming sensory memory (filters)
  • holds long enough for our brains to determine what needs to be put into STM
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13
Q

types of sensory memory

A

iconic

echoic

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14
Q

iconic

A
  • 0.2-0.4 duration
  • unlimited capacity
  • visual encoding
  • fades rapidly
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15
Q

echoic

A
  • 3-4 seconds
  • unlimited capacity
  • audiotory encoding
  • fades rapidly
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16
Q

Sterling’s study of iconic memory

A
  • flashed letters in a grid formation (participants had to remember as many as possible)
  • then did a second trial and used a high, medium or low tone to focus on a row and recall had higher rates
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17
Q

short term memory

A
  • allows us to retain information for enough time to use it
  • we draw on info from long term memory into short term memory to evaluate and understand information we are working on in the moment
  • 12>30 seconds // 5 - 9 items of capacity
  • to retain info in STM we use a process called maintenance rehearsal to keep it in awareness
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18
Q

rehearsal methods

A
  • verbal (vocal or sub-vocal [saying words subconsciously])

- non-verbal (visualising and muscular [imaging how it feels to perform an action])

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19
Q

long term memory

A

In long term memory information is caused by meaning (semantically) and is stored in semantic networks
- it’s hard to determine the duration of LTM as perceived forgotten memories may be brought back to awareness with the right cues

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20
Q

types of LTM

A

procedural / implicit
declarative / explicit
- semantic
- episodic

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21
Q

procedural

A
  • knowing how to do things
  • houses memory for actions, skills, operations and conditioned responses
  • very resistant to forgetting
  • memory for these skills doesn’t fade over time
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22
Q

declarative

A
  • memory for facts, general knowledge and events
  • involves learning associated with knowledge for reading, maths and higher order thinking
  • inc. semantic and episodic
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23
Q

semantic

A
  • facts, worldly knowledge and general knowledge
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24
Q

episodic

A
  • memories of particular events

- can be retrospective (remembering past events) or prospective (remembering to do things in the future)

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25
Q

implicit vs explicit

A
  • implicit = unconscious / hippocampus

- explicit = conscious / amygdala

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26
Q

structures involved in LTM

A 
frontal lobes
occipital lobes
pariteal lobes
temporal lobes
- hippocampus
- amygdala
- basal ganglia
- cerebellum
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27
Q

frontal lobes

A
  • storage, processing and encoding of procedural memories
  • episodic memories
  • memory for language
  • memory of motor skills
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28
Q

occipital lobes

A
  • memories for pictures
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29
Q

cerebral cortex / parietal lobes

A
  • spatial memories (awareness in space)
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30
Q

temporal lobes

A
  • memories for sounds

- memory for the names of colours

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31
Q

hippocampus

A
  • forming explicit memories

- consolidating and retrieving long term declarative memories

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32
Q

amygdala

A
  • forms long term implicit memory inc. emotional memories and emotional recognition
  • procedural memories such as skills learning and classical conditioning
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33
Q

basal ganglia

A
  • long term procedural memory

- movement

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34
Q

cerebellum

A
  • memory of motor skills tasks
  • encoding, processing and storing of procedural memories
  • classically conditioned responses (form of implicit memories)
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35
Q

role of cerebral cortex

A
  • researchers have been able to establish different long term declarative memories are stored in different areas
  • language is in the Brocas area
  • memories for names of colours and are stored in the part of the temporal lobe that is close to the occipital lobe
  • hippocampus and amygdala in the medial temporal lobe
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36
Q

role of the hippocampus

A
  • cells are able to reproduce and form new memories
  • important for forming explicit memories for complex tasks that require declarative memory
  • the process of encoding and storage takes place in the hippocampus for declarative memories before the memories are transferred to more permanent storage
  • establishes background or context for each new memory
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37
Q

hippocampus main functions

A

consolidation
linking emotion
transferring memories to storage

38
Q

consolidation

A

for explicit memory

39
Q

linking emotions

A

through its close relationship with and proximity with the amygdala it creates a relationship with emotions and memory

40
Q

transferring memories to storage

A

transfers declarative memory to other relevant parts of the brain for long term memories
- research suggests this occurs when the brain is less busy

41
Q

amygdala

A
  • responsible for memory function especially for classical conditioning and emotional memory / memory for emotions and faces
42
Q

cerebellum

A
  • procedural memories are processed, encoded and stored by cerebellum
  • has a role in classical conditioning and performing motor skills
43
Q

memory retrieval

A

recall
recognition
relearning
(least to most sensitive)

44
Q

recall

A

free: no cues / give as much information as possible
serial: recalling info in the way it was presented
cued: uses various prompts to assist the retrieval process

45
Q

recognition

A
  • identifying information which is correct among incorrect information
  • generally more accurate due to cues
46
Q

relearning

A
  • learning something that has previously been committed to memory
  • savings score = time for orig. leaning - time for relearning / time for orig. learning
47
Q

sensitivity

A
  • the more sensitive resources of retrieval will register a present memory even if only a small amount of memory remains
48
Q

recognition of memories

A

our memories are reconstructed each time we remember them

  • reconstruction refers to the way we change a memory based on how we recall it
  • the more time past recall the more likely we are to omit details
  • this also plays a role in the consolidation of memory
49
Q

Ebbinghaus and the forgetting curve

A
  • first psychologist to perform systematic research into memory
  • didn’t want previous knowledge to interfere with results (learnt pronounceable three letter combinations)
  • showed a lot of forgetting occurred rapidly in the first twenty min / moderately until an hour passes and gradually for the next 31 days
  • more than 50% forgotten in the first hour
  • if material was learnt over and over once already leant it is likely to be retained for longer with greater accuracy
50
Q

brain trauma

A

this is caused by traumatic head injury, disease, seizure, malnutrition etc

51
Q

amnesia types (i)

A

total [no memory of anything at all]
organic [memory lost due to damage of the organ responsible for memory]
head injuries are common forms of damage which can cause amnesia

52
Q

concussion

A

where a person experiences loss of consciousness for a period fo time and may lead to temporary or permanent memory loss or brain damage

53
Q

brain surgury

A

can be necessary and life saving but can cause problems for patients when it interferes in some way with the structure and function of the brain
- damage to the structure of the brain is likely to cause impairment in some forms of memory

54
Q

amnesia definition

A

the inability to remember

- can be due to psychological or physiological trauma

55
Q

amnesia types (ii)

A

retrograde

anterograde

56
Q

retrograde

A
  • inability to remember happenings before the traumatic event producing the amnesia
  • usually short term
  • a memory trace was forming just prior to the event it has been interrupted // the consolidation of the memory won’t occur and we won’t remember
57
Q

anterograde

A
  • inability to remember after the traumatic event
  • from a brain perspective the hippocampus has a key role in the transfer of memory from STM to LTM this lTM retention would be difficult if the hippocampus is damaged
58
Q

H.M. case stufy

A

H.M. was a patient who suffered severe temporal lobe epilepsy

  • experimental surgery to remove portions of both temporal lobes
  • after surgery his short term and intellectual memory was intact
  • he lost encoding of LTM but not STM, procedural or implicit
  • H.M. had both the temporal lobes of his hippocampi removed causing severe anterograde amnesia’
  • also suffered retrograde amnesia extending back to the age of 16
59
Q

post traumatic amnesia

A

people may have this when emerging from a coma

  • may last for minutes or years
  • symptoms include distortion, confusion, fatigue, agitation and inability to form new memories
60
Q

neurodegenerative disease

A
  • Dementia

- Alzheimer’s disease

61
Q

dementia

A

refers to a disorder affecting higher mental functions / can occur in various forms and may be caused by disease, brain damage, reduced blood supply to the brain or drugs such as alcohol
- Alzheimer’s disease is a form of dementia

62
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

occurs mostly in old age and includes gradual, severe memory loss, confusion, impaired attention, disordered thinking and depression
- includes retrograde and anterograde amnesia

63
Q

Alzheimer’s disease symptoms

A
  • loss of name
  • difficulty remembering events from the day before
  • difficulty finding words when speaking
  • repeating stories and questions
  • failure to recognise family or familiar people
64
Q

Alzheimer’s disease causes

A

amyloid plaques
neurofibrillary tangles
* one of the first structures to be affected is the hippocampus // when cells here are lost this causes atrophy (shrinkage) of the brain and damage to the temporal lobes to make the hippocampus isolated

65
Q

amyloid plaques

A

proteins that form among axon terminals and interfere with communication between neurons

66
Q

neurofibrillary tangles

A

an abnormal build up of protein inside the neurons // associated with the death of brain cells

67
Q

Alzheimer’s disease cause effects

A
  • plaque and tangles in the frontal lobe causes more memory problems and difficulty in attention and motor coordination
  • in the occipital lobes the disrupted links between the primary visual cortex and visual association areas can cause visual problems for the person
  • altogether declarative memory is particularly impaired
68
Q

hippocampus functioning can be affected by

A

psychological factors: stress, anxiety, depression and PTSD
physiological factors: head injury
health related conditions: Alzheimers
* prolonged stress may also have an impact

69
Q

consolidation theory

A

proposes memories are stored through a process in which there is a physical change to neurons/strengthening over time
- the hippocampus is very much involved in this process
- there are three conditions that must be present:
// physical change, no disruption, time

70
Q

physical change

A
  • consolidation mostly happens in the hippocampus which moves from STM into LTM
  • STM changes strength of existing connections while LTM involves the growth of new connections
  • LTM probably stored in some areas of cerebral cortex that were originally involved in processing the sensory info
71
Q

no disruption

A
  • there is a process where memories are set and more susceptible to alteration
  • ay be disrupted by head injury, alteration or arousal level
  • info may be altered or lost in this process if there is disruption
72
Q

time

A
  • consolidation takes time
  • neural connections that have had more time to strengthen are less likely to be disrupted
  • researchers are still identifying the period of time it takes for consolidation to take place to a point where it is no longer vulnerable to disruption or change
73
Q

factors influencing memory

A
  • the encoding specificity principle states that the associations formed at the time of encoding new memories will be the more effective retrieval cues
  • another aspect is being in the same environment which the association was made in
74
Q

context dependant cues

A

refer to the learner’s external environment in which the memory was formed

  • this can include sounds, temperature, sights and other environmental stimuli
  • at a later time context cues can influence memory retrieval
75
Q

state dependant cues

A

refers to the learner’s internal environment (mood, level of anxiety, wether they were intoxicated, mediated or sober)

  • when happy we are more likely to remember happy memories
  • the technique of rehearsal can be used to encode a memory in our brain we want to remember
76
Q

maintainance rehersal

A
  • aims to keep a memory in our short term memory as long as possible
  • essentially repeating the info over and over
  • doesn’t add meaning or link to LTM just keeps in STM
77
Q

elaborative rehersal

A
  • the way we encode when transferring to LTM
  • actively make links from STM to LTM
  • we also create cues to help us locate and retrieve the info
78
Q

craik and lockhart

A

the model of memory suggesting memory does not comprise any specific number of memory stores but is a continuous dimension in which memories are encoded in relation to the ease they can be retrieved

  • levels of encoding and processing refers to the number and types of association made between new and pervious knowledge
  • there are three levels at which we encode material, the deeper the processing the better the chance of retrieval
79
Q

levels of encoding

A

structural
semantic
phonetic

80
Q

structural encoding

A

learning words from their physical features as if they were in upper or lower case

  • shallow processing
  • around 20% remembered
81
Q

semantic encoding

A

encoding by their meaning

  • deep processing
  • approx. 50% remembered
82
Q

phonetic

A

learning words from their sounds

  • moderate processing
  • approx. 50% recall
83
Q

serial position effect

A

this is where immediate free recall of items at the beginning of end of a list are remembered better than the middle

  • primacy effect
  • recency effect
  • asymptote effect
84
Q

primacy effect

A
  • superior recall for items at the beginning of the list
  • stored in and retrieved from LTM
  • items have been rehearsed and transferred into LTM before capacity of STM was full
  • if list lasts longer than 30 seconds its recall rate may be affected
  • this will still occur if there is a delay of 12-30 seconds or more
85
Q

recency effect

A
  • superior recall for items at the end of a list compared to those in the middle of the list
  • items at the end of the list are recalled first
  • stored in STM
  • the recency effect won’t occur when there is a delay of 12-30 seconds or more
86
Q

asymptote effect

A
  • on a graph this shows inferior recall for the middle of the line
  • items are either not stored in LTM or displaced from STM
  • as STM reaches capacity items are displaced before they can be adequately rehearsed and stored in LTM
87
Q

leading questions

A

a question that because of its wording suggests what the answer should be
- during questioning in court or prior to a police investigation it is possible for misinformation to be implemented in the witness’ memory // this is known as the misinformation effect

88
Q

Loftus and Zanni (1975)

A
  • showed 100 participants a film in which a car turned quickly into traffic and caused a five-car nose-to-tail collision
  • difference was 50% of questions has ‘the broken headlight’ or ‘a broken headlight’
  • the effect had an increase in the ‘yes’ or ‘maybe’ responses relating to ‘the’ question
  • implied the fact was there was something there
89
Q

false memories

A

suggestion-induced > uses external pressure // some types of information lead to a false memory
spontaneous > develop without external pressure, instead they arise out of internal memory mechanisms

  • two theories: activation monitoring theory, fuzzy trace theory, associative-activation theory
90
Q

activation monitoring theory

A

argues that info from an actual event spreads through a network of interrelated nodes and activate concepts not part of the original event

91
Q

fuzzy trace theory

A

states that during an experienced event two memory traces are stored: verbatim and gist

  • verbatim > exact
  • gist > processing underlying meaning
  • if there is a long interval between encoding and retrieval gists may be relied on heavily which can lead to falsely recalled information and memory

VCE Psychology (6 decks)

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