U3AOS2 - Memory Flashcards
processes of memory
encoding
storage
retrieval
encoding
the process of putting information into a form which will allow for it to fit in with your personal storage system
- changes into electromagnetic code
storage
keeping the information in an organisation way to allow us to recover our memories
retrieval
the process of getting information from our memory back
- human memories are rough copies rather than exact information replaced
Atkinson-Shiffrens Multi Storage Model (ASMS model)
- describes three stores of memory that are separate but function simultaneously to create our ability to encode, store and retrieve information
- sensory
- short term
- long term
sensory memory
- very brief memory / information enters the register to create our ability to encode, store and retrieve
- 1/4 > 1/2 second
- capacity (all sensory experience)
- sense specific encoding (different stores for every sense)
- includes; visual, audio, taste, touch and smell
short term memory
- limited store which can be transferred to long term memory
- 0-18 seconds
- capacity 7 +/- 2 items
- encoding is mainly audiotory
long term memory
- a store of memory with virtually limitless capacity
- needs retrieval to bring it back to awareness
- unlimited capacity / duration
- mainly semantic encoding (visual and audio)
ASMS model strengths
- accounts for primacy and recency effects
- influential and has generated a lot of research into memory
- supported by studies of amnesiacs
ASMS model weaknesses
- oversimplified
- both long and short term memory are more complex
- doesn’t cover multiple areas of LTM
- suggests rehearsal helps transfer into LTM (isn’t essential)
- criticised for being too one way
sensory memory
first stage of memory where info from environment is received by the senses
- unlimited capacity with a brief duration
- have a sensory store for each of the senses
- if the info doesn’t get attention paid to it it won’t enter our awareness
sensory memory functions
- prevents us from being overwhelmed by the huge amounts of incoming sensory memory (filters)
- holds long enough for our brains to determine what needs to be put into STM
types of sensory memory
iconic
echoic
iconic
- 0.2-0.4 duration
- unlimited capacity
- visual encoding
- fades rapidly
echoic
- 3-4 seconds
- unlimited capacity
- audiotory encoding
- fades rapidly
Sterling’s study of iconic memory
- flashed letters in a grid formation (participants had to remember as many as possible)
- then did a second trial and used a high, medium or low tone to focus on a row and recall had higher rates
short term memory
- allows us to retain information for enough time to use it
- we draw on info from long term memory into short term memory to evaluate and understand information we are working on in the moment
- 12>30 seconds // 5 - 9 items of capacity
- to retain info in STM we use a process called maintenance rehearsal to keep it in awareness
rehearsal methods
- verbal (vocal or sub-vocal [saying words subconsciously])
- non-verbal (visualising and muscular [imaging how it feels to perform an action])
long term memory
In long term memory information is caused by meaning (semantically) and is stored in semantic networks
- it’s hard to determine the duration of LTM as perceived forgotten memories may be brought back to awareness with the right cues
types of LTM
procedural / implicit
declarative / explicit
- semantic
- episodic
procedural
- knowing how to do things
- houses memory for actions, skills, operations and conditioned responses
- very resistant to forgetting
- memory for these skills doesn’t fade over time
declarative
- memory for facts, general knowledge and events
- involves learning associated with knowledge for reading, maths and higher order thinking
- inc. semantic and episodic
semantic
- facts, worldly knowledge and general knowledge
episodic
- memories of particular events
- can be retrospective (remembering past events) or prospective (remembering to do things in the future)
implicit vs explicit
- implicit = unconscious / hippocampus
- explicit = conscious / amygdala
structures involved in LTM
frontal lobes occipital lobes pariteal lobes temporal lobes - hippocampus - amygdala - basal ganglia - cerebellum
frontal lobes
- storage, processing and encoding of procedural memories
- episodic memories
- memory for language
- memory of motor skills
occipital lobes
- memories for pictures
cerebral cortex / parietal lobes
- spatial memories (awareness in space)
temporal lobes
- memories for sounds
- memory for the names of colours
hippocampus
- forming explicit memories
- consolidating and retrieving long term declarative memories
amygdala
- forms long term implicit memory inc. emotional memories and emotional recognition
- procedural memories such as skills learning and classical conditioning
basal ganglia
- long term procedural memory
- movement
cerebellum
- memory of motor skills tasks
- encoding, processing and storing of procedural memories
- classically conditioned responses (form of implicit memories)
role of cerebral cortex
- researchers have been able to establish different long term declarative memories are stored in different areas
- language is in the Brocas area
- memories for names of colours and are stored in the part of the temporal lobe that is close to the occipital lobe
- hippocampus and amygdala in the medial temporal lobe
role of the hippocampus
- cells are able to reproduce and form new memories
- important for forming explicit memories for complex tasks that require declarative memory
- the process of encoding and storage takes place in the hippocampus for declarative memories before the memories are transferred to more permanent storage
- establishes background or context for each new memory
hippocampus main functions
consolidation
linking emotion
transferring memories to storage
consolidation
for explicit memory
linking emotions
through its close relationship with and proximity with the amygdala it creates a relationship with emotions and memory
transferring memories to storage
transfers declarative memory to other relevant parts of the brain for long term memories
- research suggests this occurs when the brain is less busy
amygdala
- responsible for memory function especially for classical conditioning and emotional memory / memory for emotions and faces
cerebellum
- procedural memories are processed, encoded and stored by cerebellum
- has a role in classical conditioning and performing motor skills
memory retrieval
recall
recognition
relearning
(least to most sensitive)
recall
free: no cues / give as much information as possible
serial: recalling info in the way it was presented
cued: uses various prompts to assist the retrieval process
recognition
- identifying information which is correct among incorrect information
- generally more accurate due to cues
relearning
- learning something that has previously been committed to memory
- savings score = time for orig. leaning - time for relearning / time for orig. learning
sensitivity
- the more sensitive resources of retrieval will register a present memory even if only a small amount of memory remains
recognition of memories
our memories are reconstructed each time we remember them
- reconstruction refers to the way we change a memory based on how we recall it
- the more time past recall the more likely we are to omit details
- this also plays a role in the consolidation of memory
Ebbinghaus and the forgetting curve
- first psychologist to perform systematic research into memory
- didn’t want previous knowledge to interfere with results (learnt pronounceable three letter combinations)
- showed a lot of forgetting occurred rapidly in the first twenty min / moderately until an hour passes and gradually for the next 31 days
- more than 50% forgotten in the first hour
- if material was learnt over and over once already leant it is likely to be retained for longer with greater accuracy
brain trauma
this is caused by traumatic head injury, disease, seizure, malnutrition etc
amnesia types (i)
total [no memory of anything at all]
organic [memory lost due to damage of the organ responsible for memory]
head injuries are common forms of damage which can cause amnesia
concussion
where a person experiences loss of consciousness for a period fo time and may lead to temporary or permanent memory loss or brain damage
brain surgury
can be necessary and life saving but can cause problems for patients when it interferes in some way with the structure and function of the brain
- damage to the structure of the brain is likely to cause impairment in some forms of memory
amnesia definition
the inability to remember
- can be due to psychological or physiological trauma
amnesia types (ii)
retrograde
anterograde
retrograde
- inability to remember happenings before the traumatic event producing the amnesia
- usually short term
- a memory trace was forming just prior to the event it has been interrupted // the consolidation of the memory won’t occur and we won’t remember
anterograde
- inability to remember after the traumatic event
- from a brain perspective the hippocampus has a key role in the transfer of memory from STM to LTM this lTM retention would be difficult if the hippocampus is damaged
H.M. case stufy
H.M. was a patient who suffered severe temporal lobe epilepsy
- experimental surgery to remove portions of both temporal lobes
- after surgery his short term and intellectual memory was intact
- he lost encoding of LTM but not STM, procedural or implicit
- H.M. had both the temporal lobes of his hippocampi removed causing severe anterograde amnesia’
- also suffered retrograde amnesia extending back to the age of 16
post traumatic amnesia
people may have this when emerging from a coma
- may last for minutes or years
- symptoms include distortion, confusion, fatigue, agitation and inability to form new memories
neurodegenerative disease
- Dementia
- Alzheimer’s disease
dementia
refers to a disorder affecting higher mental functions / can occur in various forms and may be caused by disease, brain damage, reduced blood supply to the brain or drugs such as alcohol
- Alzheimer’s disease is a form of dementia
Alzheimer’s disease
occurs mostly in old age and includes gradual, severe memory loss, confusion, impaired attention, disordered thinking and depression
- includes retrograde and anterograde amnesia
Alzheimer’s disease symptoms
- loss of name
- difficulty remembering events from the day before
- difficulty finding words when speaking
- repeating stories and questions
- failure to recognise family or familiar people
Alzheimer’s disease causes
amyloid plaques
neurofibrillary tangles
* one of the first structures to be affected is the hippocampus // when cells here are lost this causes atrophy (shrinkage) of the brain and damage to the temporal lobes to make the hippocampus isolated
amyloid plaques
proteins that form among axon terminals and interfere with communication between neurons
neurofibrillary tangles
an abnormal build up of protein inside the neurons // associated with the death of brain cells
Alzheimer’s disease cause effects
- plaque and tangles in the frontal lobe causes more memory problems and difficulty in attention and motor coordination
- in the occipital lobes the disrupted links between the primary visual cortex and visual association areas can cause visual problems for the person
- altogether declarative memory is particularly impaired
hippocampus functioning can be affected by
psychological factors: stress, anxiety, depression and PTSD
physiological factors: head injury
health related conditions: Alzheimers
* prolonged stress may also have an impact
consolidation theory
proposes memories are stored through a process in which there is a physical change to neurons/strengthening over time
- the hippocampus is very much involved in this process
- there are three conditions that must be present:
// physical change, no disruption, time
physical change
- consolidation mostly happens in the hippocampus which moves from STM into LTM
- STM changes strength of existing connections while LTM involves the growth of new connections
- LTM probably stored in some areas of cerebral cortex that were originally involved in processing the sensory info
no disruption
- there is a process where memories are set and more susceptible to alteration
- ay be disrupted by head injury, alteration or arousal level
- info may be altered or lost in this process if there is disruption
time
- consolidation takes time
- neural connections that have had more time to strengthen are less likely to be disrupted
- researchers are still identifying the period of time it takes for consolidation to take place to a point where it is no longer vulnerable to disruption or change
factors influencing memory
- the encoding specificity principle states that the associations formed at the time of encoding new memories will be the more effective retrieval cues
- another aspect is being in the same environment which the association was made in
context dependant cues
refer to the learner’s external environment in which the memory was formed
- this can include sounds, temperature, sights and other environmental stimuli
- at a later time context cues can influence memory retrieval
state dependant cues
refers to the learner’s internal environment (mood, level of anxiety, wether they were intoxicated, mediated or sober)
- when happy we are more likely to remember happy memories
- the technique of rehearsal can be used to encode a memory in our brain we want to remember
maintainance rehersal
- aims to keep a memory in our short term memory as long as possible
- essentially repeating the info over and over
- doesn’t add meaning or link to LTM just keeps in STM
elaborative rehersal
- the way we encode when transferring to LTM
- actively make links from STM to LTM
- we also create cues to help us locate and retrieve the info
craik and lockhart
the model of memory suggesting memory does not comprise any specific number of memory stores but is a continuous dimension in which memories are encoded in relation to the ease they can be retrieved
- levels of encoding and processing refers to the number and types of association made between new and pervious knowledge
- there are three levels at which we encode material, the deeper the processing the better the chance of retrieval
levels of encoding
structural
semantic
phonetic
structural encoding
learning words from their physical features as if they were in upper or lower case
- shallow processing
- around 20% remembered
semantic encoding
encoding by their meaning
- deep processing
- approx. 50% remembered
phonetic
learning words from their sounds
- moderate processing
- approx. 50% recall
serial position effect
this is where immediate free recall of items at the beginning of end of a list are remembered better than the middle
- primacy effect
- recency effect
- asymptote effect
primacy effect
- superior recall for items at the beginning of the list
- stored in and retrieved from LTM
- items have been rehearsed and transferred into LTM before capacity of STM was full
- if list lasts longer than 30 seconds its recall rate may be affected
- this will still occur if there is a delay of 12-30 seconds or more
recency effect
- superior recall for items at the end of a list compared to those in the middle of the list
- items at the end of the list are recalled first
- stored in STM
- the recency effect won’t occur when there is a delay of 12-30 seconds or more
asymptote effect
- on a graph this shows inferior recall for the middle of the line
- items are either not stored in LTM or displaced from STM
- as STM reaches capacity items are displaced before they can be adequately rehearsed and stored in LTM
leading questions
a question that because of its wording suggests what the answer should be
- during questioning in court or prior to a police investigation it is possible for misinformation to be implemented in the witness’ memory // this is known as the misinformation effect
Loftus and Zanni (1975)
- showed 100 participants a film in which a car turned quickly into traffic and caused a five-car nose-to-tail collision
- difference was 50% of questions has ‘the broken headlight’ or ‘a broken headlight’
- the effect had an increase in the ‘yes’ or ‘maybe’ responses relating to ‘the’ question
- implied the fact was there was something there
false memories
suggestion-induced > uses external pressure // some types of information lead to a false memory
spontaneous > develop without external pressure, instead they arise out of internal memory mechanisms
- two theories: activation monitoring theory, fuzzy trace theory, associative-activation theory
activation monitoring theory
argues that info from an actual event spreads through a network of interrelated nodes and activate concepts not part of the original event
fuzzy trace theory
states that during an experienced event two memory traces are stored: verbatim and gist
- verbatim > exact
- gist > processing underlying meaning
- if there is a long interval between encoding and retrieval gists may be relied on heavily which can lead to falsely recalled information and memory
