U N I T 6 Flashcards
What is the Industrial Revolution?
A period of significant technological advancement and economic transformation that began in the late 18th century Britain, marked by a shift from hand production to machine-based manufacturing in factories, leading to major social and demographic changes.
What were the two main impacts of the Industrial Revolution on society?
- Mass urbanization
- New industrial working class
Define capitalism.
An economic system where private individuals or businesses own capital goods and are responsible for producing goods and services for profit.
What are the key points about capitalism?
- Private ownership
- Profit motive
- Market forces
Who invented the first steam engine and who improved it?
Thomas Newcomen invented it; James Watt vastly improved it.
What is the significance of the steam engine during the Industrial Revolution?
It powered machinery, ships, and locomotives, making it cheaper and easier to produce large quantities of goods.
Who was Henry Bessemer and what did he develop?
An English inventor who developed the ‘Bessemer process’ for mass-producing steel cheaply and efficiently.
What was the Great Exhibition of 1851?
A world’s fair held in London showcasing the achievements of the Industrial Revolution and celebrating modern industrial technology and design.
What is a patent?
A legal document that grants an inventor the exclusive right to produce and sell their invention for a limited period.
What were the Corn Laws?
A series of British laws that imposed tariffs and restrictions on imported grain to protect domestic farmers.
What was the impact of the Corn Laws on society?
Contributed to social unrest and political tension due to the high cost of bread affecting the poor.
What caused the Hungry ’40s’ / Irish Potato Famine?
A devastating potato blight that decimated crops, leading to widespread hunger and hardship.
What were the consequences of the Irish Potato Famine?
- Social unrest
- Mass migration
- Repeal of the Corn Laws
What was the Emancipation Edict of 1861 in Russia?
A decree that abolished serfdom, granting personal freedom and the right to own property.
What are tenements?
Poorly constructed, overcrowded, multi-family apartment buildings typically found in urban areas during the 19th century.
Define class identity.
How individuals perceive themselves within the social hierarchy based on their economic status and social position.
What was the Peterloo Massacre?
A violent incident where British cavalry charged into a crowd of protestors demanding parliamentary reform, resulting in deaths and injuries.
What are labor unions?
Organized groups of workers that negotiate collectively for better wages, working conditions, and employment benefits.
Define social mores.
The customary norms, values, and behaviors considered acceptable within a society.
What is philanthropy?
The act of charitable giving or donations made by individuals to support causes aimed at improving well-being.
What did the Factory Act of 1833 aim to do?
Improve working conditions in factories, particularly for children, by setting limits on working hours and establishing a minimum age for employment.
What did the Mines Act of 1842 prohibit?
Women and girls from working underground in coal mines and restricted boys under the age of 10 in mines.
What was the Ten Hours Act of 1847?
A law that limited the working hours of women and children in textile mills to ten hours per day.
Define conservatism.
A political and social philosophy that emphasizes tradition, established institutions, and a cautious approach to change.
Who was Edmund Burke?
An Irish statesman known for his criticism of the French Revolution and advocacy for conservative principles.
What is a limited monarchy?
A system of government where the power of the monarch is restricted by a constitution or laws.
What is the concept of natural order?
A philosophical concept describing the state of human existence before organized society and government.
Who was Joseph de Maistre?
A theorist of the ‘Counter-Enlightenment’ who advocated for traditional social hierarchies and absolute monarchy.
What was the Congress of Vienna?
A diplomatic conference held to redraw the political map of Europe and establish a balance of power after the Napoleonic Wars.
What was the goal of the Concert of Europe?
To maintain the balance of power and prevent revolutions in Europe through cooperative international relations.
What is the balance of powers theory?
A political theory where European nations prevent any single country from becoming too powerful by forming alliances and counterbalancing forces.
Who were the Decembrists?
Russian military officers who participated in a failed revolt against Tsar Nicholas I in 1825, advocating for a constitutional monarchy.
What was the July Revolution of 1830?
A popular uprising in France that led to the overthrow of King Charles X and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.
What were the goals of the Revolutions of 1848?
- Democratic reforms
- National unification
- Social change
Who was Napoleon III?
The first President of France who later became the Emperor from 1852 until 1870, marked by modernization and expansionism.
What were the main locations where the revolutions began in the 19th century?
Sicily, Italy; France; Germany; Austrian Empire
These revolutions were part of a broader wave of uprisings across Europe during the period.
Who was Napoleon III and what was significant about his rule?
First President of France; Emperor from 1852-1870; marked by modernization, authoritarian rule, and expansionism
His reign influenced the balance of power and nationalist movements across Europe.
What economic reforms did Napoleon III implement?
Establishment of railroads and banks
These reforms helped modernize the French economy.
Who was Tsar Alexander II and what was his notable reform?
Emperor of Russia from 1855-1881; emancipation of the serfs in 1861
This reform aimed to address demands for change in Russian society.
What challenges did Tsar Alexander II face after his reforms?
Opposition from conservatives and radicals
Conservatives resisted change while radicals demanded more comprehensive reforms.
What characterized Tsar Alexander III’s reign?
Conservative policies; strong support of nationalism; rollback of liberal reforms
He implemented repressive measures against dissent and promoted ‘Russification’.
What is the Duma in the context of Russian history?
Legislative assembly established after the 1905 Revolution
It was a response to demands for political reform but had limited powers.
Who was Peter Stolypin and what were his contributions?
Prime Minister from 1906-1911; known for agrarian reforms
His reforms aimed to stabilize the country post-1905 revolution.
What were the ‘Stolypin land reforms’ aimed at?
Breaking up communal land ownership; allowing peasants to buy individual plots
This sought to create a class of prosperous peasant landowners.
Define liberalism.
Political ideology emphasizing individual freedoms, equality, limited government
It emerged as a response to absolute monarchy and feudalism.
What are the key values of liberalism?
- Individual liberty
- Equality
- Democratic governance
What is popular sovereignty?
Authority of a state created by the consent of its people
This principle emphasizes that political power comes from the will of the governed.
Who is Jeremy Bentham?
Founder of modern utilitarianism; advocated for social reforms
He argued for legal changes to achieve greater utility.
What is the ‘Principle of Utility’?
The best action is the one that produces the greatest overall happiness
This concept is central to utilitarianism.
Describe utilitarianism.
Philosophical theory suggesting actions that maximize overall happiness are best
It emerged in response to social issues created by industrialization.
Who was John Stuart Mill?
19th-century philosopher and political economist; advocate for individual freedoms
He emphasized personal liberty and supported social reforms.
What is Chartism?
Working-class movement in Britain during the 1830s and 1840s
Aimed to gain political rights through the People’s Charter.
What were the main demands of the Chartist movement?
- Universal male suffrage
- Secret ballots
- Payment for Members of Parliament
Define socialism.
Economic and political system advocating collective ownership of production
It emerged as a response to inequalities brought by capitalism.
Who was Charles Fourier?
French philosopher known for ‘utopian socialism’; proposed ‘phalansteries’
These communities aimed for social harmony through collective labor.
Who was Robert Owen and what did he advocate for?
Social reformer; established cooperative movement; emphasized education
He promoted communal living and welfare for workers.
What is Marxism?
Theory critiquing capitalism; advocates for a classless society through revolution
Developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.
What does communism advocate for?
Classless society with public ownership of property
It aims for individuals to work and be paid according to their needs.
Who was Clara Zetkin?
German Marxist theorist; advocate for women’s rights; linked women’s movement with socialism
She organized the first International Women’s Day celebration.
What is anarchism?
Political philosophy advocating for a stateless society based on voluntary cooperation
It emerged in response to oppressive regimes and social injustices.
Who was Mikhail Bakunin?
Key figure in the anarchist movement; opposed centralized power
He advocated for voluntary associations and direct action.
What is syndicalism?
Ideology advocating for direct worker control through labor unions
It emphasizes collective action and direct democracy.
Define laissez-faire.
Economic theory promoting minimal government intervention in the economy
It encourages competition and innovation.
What is interventionism in foreign policy?
Active interference in another nation’s affairs to influence outcomes
It often aims to maintain stability or uphold a conservative order.
Who was Edwin Chadwick?
19th-century social reformer focused on public health and sanitation
His work led to significant reforms in public health policies.
What is urban redesign?
Transformation of cities to improve sanitation and living conditions
It was crucial during the Industrial Revolution.
What characterized the Second Industrial Revolution?
Rapid industrial growth; technological advancements in steel, electricity, chemicals
It significantly impacted societal structures and economies.
What was the internal combustion engine?
Engine where combustion occurs inside the engine
It revolutionized industries by improving production efficiency.
What marked the late 19th and early 20th centuries in terms of industrial development?
Innovations in steel production, electricity, and chemical processes
This era transformed industries and impacted societal structures, economies, and global relations.
What new technologies emerged during the Second Industrial Revolution?
Internal combustion engine, electricity, synthetic dyes, fertilizers
These technologies significantly changed production and transportation.
How did the introduction of electricity affect industries?
Enabled factories to operate longer hours and improved production efficiency
Electric machinery played a crucial role in this transformation.
What social reforms arose from workers seeking better conditions?
Establishment of labor rights
This was a response to poor working conditions during the Industrial Revolution.
Define internal combustion engine.
An engine where combustion occurs inside a closed chamber, converting fuel into mechanical power
Commonly seen in early automobiles and crucial for transportation development.
Who were the Krupp family?
A prominent German industrial dynasty known for contributions to steel and armaments
They established the Krupp Company, one of the largest industrial enterprises in Europe.
What is protectionism?
An economic policy using trade barriers to safeguard domestic industries from foreign competition
Aims to prioritize local production over imports.
List three methods of implementing protectionism.
- Tariffs
- Quotas
- Subsidies
These methods are used to protect domestic industries.
What is a monopoly?
A market structure where a single seller dominates the market
Monopolies often restrict access to goods and can lead to higher prices for consumers.
What does ‘most favored nation’ status entail?
A trade status ensuring a country receives the same trade advantages as the most favored nation
Aims to promote fair and equal trading relationships.
What are department stores?
Large retail establishments offering a wide variety of goods organized into different departments
They became symbols of growing consumer culture in the 19th century.
What was the Zollverein?
A customs union established in 1834 among various German states to promote economic unity
It facilitated free trade and strengthened economic ties, aiding political unification.
What is the National System in economic policy?
A nationalistic approach emphasizing state intervention to foster industrial growth
It criticized laissez-faire policies for favoring established industrial nations.
Who was Friedrich List?
A prominent German economist advocating for economic nationalism and protective tariffs
He believed developing nations should shield their industries from foreign competition.
What was the Cato Street Conspiracy?
A failed plot in 1820 to assassinate British cabinet ministers during a cabinet dinner
It highlighted social and political unrest in early 19th century Britain.
What significant change occurred in manufacturing prior to 1750?
Manufacturing was conducted in households, primarily for family use
This changed with the Industrial Revolution, leading to factory-based production.
What was the impact of the Enclosure Movement?
Peasants were forced to pay rent and borrow money, leading to subsistence farming decline
Many farmers moved to cities for factory jobs.
What was the significance of the extensive rail system built in England?
It allowed for the rapid and cheap movement of raw materials
This was crucial for industrial growth.
Describe tenement living during the Industrial Revolution.
Families shared space with non-relatives, creating unsanitary conditions
Single workers sometimes rotated beds due to high costs.
What does ‘Saint Monday’ refer to?
An expression used by workers as an excuse to avoid showing up for work on Mondays
It reflects the attitudes towards work during the Industrial Revolution.
What was the relationship between the Industrial Revolution and imperialism?
The Industrial Revolution led to European imperialism as nations sought raw materials
Great Britain controlled 20% of the world’s population by 1877.
What caused the Irish Potato Famine?
Potato blight due to wet and cold temperatures, destroying the crop
This led to mass starvation among the Irish peasantry.
What was the average daily potato consumption for an Irish man during the famine?
14 lbs of potatoes a day
The Irish were heavily dependent on the potato crop for sustenance.
What was the impact of British policies during the Irish Potato Famine?
The British government took a laissez-faire approach, leading to widespread suffering
They opened soup kitchens but limited their effectiveness.
How did the Industrial Revolution spread to Belgium?
Belgium became the first nation to industrialize after England
Other nations like Germany, France, and the US followed later.
What role did foreign investors play in German industrialization?
They contributed to early industrialization through financial support
This included Irish capital in mining ventures.
What environmental concern arose from the Industrial Revolution?
Coal smoke heavily polluted the air
This was a significant consequence of industrial activities.
What social classes emerged as a result of the Industrial Revolution?
- Capital and Labor
- Industrial Middle Class
- Industrial Working Class
These classes reflected the changing economic landscape.
What were the Revolutions of 1848?
A series of simultaneous political upheavals throughout Europe
Most revolutions failed and conservatives regained power.
What were the goals of the liberal revolutionaries during the Revolutions of 1848?
- Limited Church Influence
- Limited State Power
- Republican Government
- Economic Freedom
- Civil Liberties
These goals reflected the desire for democratic reforms.
What was the outcome of the 1848 Revolution in France?
It ended the Orleans monarchy and led to the creation of the French Second Republic
This was part of the broader revolutionary wave across Europe.
What was a significant failure of the German Revolution of 1848?
It failed to unify the German-speaking states
The Frankfurt Assembly could not form coalitions to push for specific goals.
What was sometimes known as the February Revolution?
The wave revolutions in 1814 in Europe that ended the Orleans monarchy in France and led to the creation of the French Second Republic.
What was the result of the Revolution of 1848 in Germany?
The Revolution of 1848 failed in its attempt to unify the German-speaking states due to the inability of the Frankfurt Assembly to form coalitions and push for specific goals.
When did the Italian Revolution break out and what was its outcome?
The Italian Revolution broke out in January 1848, leading to a short-term failure but a long-term success with the unification of Italy in 1870.
What were the main reasons for the failure of the Revolutions of 1848?
- Lack of strong allies and support
- Weak military support of the rulers
- Divisions among the revolutionaries
Who was Alexander I and what reforms did he implement?
Alexander I was the Tsar of Russia who suppressed the secret police, improved the education system, and relaxed censorship during the early years of his reign.
What significant military defeats did the Russian army face under Alexander I?
The Russian army suffered defeats at the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805 and at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806.
What was the outcome of Napoleon’s invasion of Russia in 1812?
Napoleon’s campaign ended in disaster, with only 25,000 men returning after the burning of Moscow and a long retreat.
What characterized Nicholas I’s rule in Russia?
Nicholas I turned Russia into a bureaucratic police state, with heavy censorship and a focus on autocracy, orthodoxy, and nationalism.
What was the Decembrist Revolt?
An attempt by young liberal army officers to overthrow Nicholas I, which was quickly suppressed.
What was the significance of the Crimean War for Nicholas I?
The Crimean War exposed Russia’s technological backwardness and resulted in a shameful defeat, leading to Nicholas I’s death during the war.
What reforms did Alexander II implement during his reign?
- Abolished serfdom
- Modernized the judicial system
- Reduced censorship
- Built railroad networks
- Introduced local government institutions (Zemstvos)
What was the Emancipation Manifesto?
The 1861 declaration that freed all privately owned serfs in Russia.
When and how did Alexander II die?
Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 by a group of terrorists from the Narodnaya Volya revolutionary organization.
What were the social impacts of industrialization?
- Made goods affordable
- Created gaps between rich and poor
- Improved standards of living for poorer city dwellers by the end of the 19th century
What was the significance of the repeal of the Corn Laws in Britain?
The repeal shifted political power, benefitting the middle class and making the price of wheat subject to supply and demand.
What did the Factory Act of 1833 accomplish?
Protected working children by regulating their working hours and requiring education.
What was Chartism?
A movement that called for political reforms in Britain, including universal suffrage and redrawing voting districts.
What is socialism?
A political and economic system where the means of production are owned or controlled by society for the public good.
What did Marx predict in the Communist Manifesto?
A workers revolution and the inevitability of class struggle throughout history.
What happened during the Peterloo Massacre?
A peaceful appeal for parliamentary reform turned violent, resulting in 18 deaths and at least 600 injuries.
What did Lord Liverpool’s Tory government fear regarding concessions?
They feared that any concessions would lead to a revolution similar to the French Revolution.
Who were the Spenceans?
Followers of the radical Thomas Spence, advocating for common ownership of land, universal suffrage, and abolition of the aristocracy.
What were the Blanketeers attempting to do in 1817?
They attempted to march from Manchester to London to petition for food.
What was the outcome of the attempted armed uprising in Derbyshire?
It fizzled out with savage reprisals by authorities, resulting in three ringleaders being hanged and beheaded.
What happened at the reform meeting in Spa Fields, Westminster, in December 1816?
The meeting turned to violence as agitators attempted to storm the Bank of England.
In 1819, what was notable about the series of public reform meetings?
They passed off peacefully across the country.
Who was Henry ‘Orator’ Hunt?
The leading extra-parliamentary speaker for reforms.
What was the size of the crowd at St. Peter’s Fields by 1pm on August 16, 1819?
60,000 people.
What type of force was the Manchester and Salford Yeomanry?
A part-time cavalry force made up of local businessmen and their sons.
Who were the magistrates in the context of the St. Peter’s Fields meeting?
Local men of property, retired businessmen, lawyers, and a clergyman, none sympathetic to political reform.
What was the significance of the cavalry’s attack on unarmed demonstrators at Peterloo?
It became a landmark in the struggle for democracy.
When did the Second Industrial Revolution take place?
Late 19th into early 20th century.
What manufacturing method did Henry Ford develop in 1913?
The assembly line.
What were some of the social changes resulting from the mistreatment of workers?
New ideas on owner/worker relationships and the formation of socialist parties.
What did Marx and Engels call for?
The workers of the world to unite and overthrow the bourgeoisie.
What was the Second International?
A coalition formed in 1889 from various socialist parties.
What was a key step in the evolution of labor unions?
The right to strike.
What was a major focus in urban health and sanitation during the late 19th century?
Government regulations for running water and drainage systems.
What were the demands of Chartism?
Universal suffrage for men, secret ballot, removal of property requirements for Parliament, salaries for MPs, equal electoral districts, annually elected Parliament.
What significant action did Czar Nicholas II take in 1907?
He curtailed the power of the Duma and used the army and bureaucracy to rule Russia.
What was the Russo-Japanese War?
A territorial conflict over parts of China where Japan defeated Russia, marking the first time an Asian power defeated a European power.
What tensions developed in Europe regarding the Balkan area?
Austria/Hungary wanted control of parts, especially Serbia, while Russia showed interest in protecting Serbia.
What Influence did Changes in Farming have on the Industrial Revolution?
The Agricultural Revolution, which continued in the 19th century, introduced innovations such as crop rotation, selective breeding, and mechanized farming tools like Jethro Tull’s seed drill. These advancements increased agricultural productivity, leading to a surplus of food and a decline in famine. As fewer agricultural workers were needed, many rural laborers migrated to urban centers, providing a workforce for emerging industries, particularly in Britain, France, and Germany.
What Influence did Population Growth have on the Industrial Revolution?
As agricultural productivity increased and traditional rural economies declined, many workers left the countryside in search of employment in industrialized cities. This rural-to-urban migration fueled the growth of cities such as Manchester, providing industries with a steady supply of cheap labor. The rapid urbanization also led to the expansion of industrial infrastructure including factories, tenements, and transportation services, also contributing to the rapid urbanization.
What Influence did Increased Demand have on the Industrial Revolution?
The rise of industrial capitalism and global trade created a surge in demand for manufactured goods such as textiles, iron, and steel. The expansion of railroads and steam-powered transportation further stimulated industrialization by connecting markets and facilitating the movements of raw materials. Urbanization and rising incomes among the middle class led to increased consumer demand particularly in Britain, France, and Germany, which prioritized industries to innovate and expand production.
What consequence did Mass Urbanization have on the Industrial Revolution?
Overcrowded and unsanitary living conditions resulted in the rise of tenements, public health crisis, and the spread of diseases. Governments eventually implemented reforms, including sanitation systems, housing regulations, and public health initiatives, but this was farther into the Industrial Revolution.
What consequence did Labor Conditions have on the Industrial Revolution?
Poor working conditions, long hours, and low wages led to worker dissatisfaction, resulting in the rise of labor unions, strikes, and socialist movements advocating for labor rights, better wages, and political reforms.
How was European order re established and maintained in the period following Napoleon’s defeat?
After Napoleon’s defeat, the European order was reestablished through the Congress of Vienna in 1815, where European members of the Holy Alliances sought to restore monarchies and prevent revolution. However, tensions remained, leading to events like the Peterloo Massacre in 1819, where peaceful protests demanding parliamentary reform, resulted in deaths and injuries, highlighting the tensions between the government and working class during the post-Napoleonic Wars era. The Revolutions of 1848 challenged the world order, as liberal and nationalist uprising spread throughout Europe, most were suppressed. In Russia, the Emancipation Edict of 1861, reflected broader attempts to balance reform and stability.
