Types of retrieval Flashcards

1
Q

Define retrospective memory.

A

Remembering the past.

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2
Q

What is prospective memory?

A

Remembering to do things in the future.

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3
Q

What is one of the commonest everyday uses of memory?

A

Remembering to do things, i.e. prospective memory.

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4
Q

What is one of the commonest reasons to complain about having a poor memory?

A

Forgetting to do things. However, prospective memory doesn’t appear to behave like other aspects of memory.

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5
Q

Give an example of how prospective memory does not appear to behave like other aspects of memory.

A

Maylor (1990) found that prospective memory performance was not predicted by any of the traditional memory tasks.

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6
Q

What did Maylor (1990) do?

A

Asked 222 elderly participants to telephone the lab once a day at a specified time for a week.

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7
Q

What traditional (retrospective) memory tasks did Maylor (1990) use?

A

Digit span, 30 item free recall list, list learning task, and semantic memory (vocab test).

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8
Q

What technique did Maylor (1990) find produced the best prospective memory performance?

A

Using the conjunction of phoning with a regularly occurring event - 0.11/5 errors.

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9
Q

What technique did Maylor (1990) find produced good prospective memory performance?

A

Using external cues, for example setting an alarm (0.3/5 errors).

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10
Q

What technique did Maylor (1990) find produced most of the failures in prospective memory performance?

A

Using internal cues - just trying to remember.

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11
Q

What does prospective memory require, and what is it enhanced by?

A

Retrieving an intention at the appropriate time - like retrospective memory, it is enhanced by good retrieval cues.

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12
Q

What do recent theories of prospective memory do?

A

Separate it into different components (e.g. Graf and Utti, 2001).

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13
Q

What do recent theories of prospective memory suggest about performance of the elderly?

A

It may only be impaired in laboratory prospective tasks, e.g. Henry et al. (2004).

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14
Q

When performing a recognition task, what two types of feelings can we have?

A
  • recollective experience - remembering when the item was experienced before.
  • familiarity - knowing the object has been seen before.
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15
Q

What did Tulving (1985) state?

A

That we have two types of consciousness, autonoetic (self, own role) and noetic (just information). These are reflected in the phenomenon of the remember-know distinction, which in turn is represented as episodic and semantic memory.

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16
Q

What variables particularly increase remember responses?

A

Deep processing, self generation and low word-frequency.

17
Q

What variables particularly increase know responses?

A

Maintenance rehearsal, non-words and massed learning.

18
Q

What are the process-distinction procedure and recollection-familiarity distinction descriptions of?

A

Two proposed memory processes.

19
Q

What does the episodic-semantic distinction generally contrast?

A

Memory structures.

20
Q

Give examples of a memory phenomenon, processes and structures to do with remembering and knowing.

A

Phenomenon - remember-know distinction.
Processes - process-distinction procedure and recollection-familiarity distinction.
Structures - episodic/semantic distinction.

21
Q

What did Johnson, Taylor and Raye (1977) do?

A

A lab experiment using source monitoring to test people’s memory for context - used paired associate learning and asked participants to judge how often the item was studied and tested.

22
Q

What did Johnson, Taylor and Raye (1977) find?

A

That people find it difficult to distinguish between internal (studying) and external (testing) events in frequency judgement - the two are interdependent. Source monitoring was innacurate.

23
Q

What can be concluded from laboratory tasks on source monitoring?

A

Even in a simple laboratory task, people have difficulty preventing information from two sources confounding each other.

24
Q

What did Johnson, Hashtroudi and Lindsay (1993) state?

A

That people’s inability to prevent sources from confounding each other has been expanded into a Source Monitoring Framework in memory.

25
Q

What is a particularly interesting example of source monitoring in action?

A

Reality monitoring - Johnson and Raye (1981). Memory for the information source may not be stored, so we may remember internally generated events but not that they were internally generated. The source of a memory may generally be reconstructed from its content.

26
Q

What did Johnson, Foley, Suengas and Raye (1988) state about the differences between real and imagined memories?

A

They differ in terms of perceptual information, contextual information, and supporting memories. However time blurs this distinction.

27
Q

What is the key research into real and suggested events?

A

Schooler, Gerhard and Loftus (1986), who investigated whether we can use reality monitoring to spot false memories.

28
Q

What did Schooler, Gerhard and Loftus (1986) do?

A

Used the same stimuli as in the Loftus, Miller and Burns (1978) road accident study, misinformed participants with a question about a Yield sign, when it had been a stop sign. Added in a description condition.

29
Q

What did Schooler, Gerhard and Loftus (1986) find?

A

Real memories had a higher proportion remembered and mean confidence and more sensory information than suggested ones.
Suggested memories had longer descriptions, more cognitive justification, more function explanation and more verbal hedges.

30
Q

What are verbal hedges?

A

The use of justification for one’s own thoughts - “because of ….., I think….”

31
Q

What else did Schooler, Gerhard and Loftus (1986) find?

A

Psychology students’ classification of real and suggested memories was just above chance, with confidence the main reason for classification . Geographic and cognitive information was particularly misleading. Training improves accuracy, but time blurs the distinction between perceptual and contextual information.

32
Q

Other than time, what can confuse real and false memories?

A

Repeatedly thinking about events may decrease the differences in memory between real and imagined events (Suengas and Johnson, 1988).

33
Q

According to Ross (1989), how is retrieval affected by social factors?

A

We rewrite our own memories in two ways:

  1. Remembered attitudes - memories of previous attitudes are more similar to current ones than they were (hindsight bias).
  2. Remembered behaviour - attitude change manipulations can distort memories of previous behaviour (cognitive dissonance).
34
Q

What could explain social influences on retrieval?

A

A simple bias in terms of state-congruent retrieval.

35
Q

What did Conway and Ross (1984) find about remembered abilities?

A

Groups of students rated their study skills before and after a training program. It made no difference to skills or grades, but afterwards they systematically remembered their pre-course grades as being worse than they were. Socially motivated to be state-incongruent.