Trying not to fail

Question 1

What type of RQs are there?

Answer 1

Exploratory
Explanatory
Descriptive

Question 2

What are exploratory RQs for, and what type of RD is often used for them?

Answer 2

Pave way for further questions, understand what happens (often flexible RD)

Question 3

What are descriptive RQs for, and what type of research are they often used in?

Answer 3

Portray accurate profile of people or situations; comparison
NOT: testing relationships or predicting outcomes
Quantitative study/ after qualitative study

Question 4

What are explanatory RQs for, and what type of RD is often used for them?

Answer 4

Explain situation, problem, pattern; find relationships between phenomena
Looking for causality

Question 5

What type of study fits with a fixed research design?

Answer 5

Experiments, quasi-experiments, non-experimental studies

Question 6

What type of study fits with a flexible research design?

Answer 6

Case studies, ethnographic research, grounded theory

Question 7

What RD and type of study are usually used for descriptive RQs?

Answer 7

Fixed, non-experimental

Question 8

What RD and type of study are usually used for explanatory RQs?

Answer 8

Fixed, (non)experimental

Question 9

What RD and type of study are usually used for exploratory RQs?

Answer 9

Flexible, whatever

Question 10

What are limitations of experimental designs?

Answer 10

IV manipulation not always possible/ ethical
Random assignment ≠ equivalent groups (tho the more the better)
Sometimes other designs work better

Question 11

What are internal validity threats? (9)

Answer 11

Maturation
History
Test effects
Instrumentation
Regression to the mean
Selection
Mortality & attrition
Interactions with selection (e.g., history)
Uncertainty over causal influences (A -> B vs. B -> A?)

Question 12

What are statistical validity threats? (5)

Answer 12

Low power
Fishing
Unreliable measurement instruments
Unstandardised procedure
Coincidental differences between groups/ in experimental situation

Question 13

What are construct validity threats? (7)

Answer 13

Construct underrepresentation
Surplus construct irrelevancies
Mono method bias
Demoralised control group
Fear of evaluation
Research expectations
Hypothesis guessing

Question 14

What are external validity threats?

Answer 14

Specificity to:
group
context
historical influences
constructs within group

Question 15

What are the four types of validity mentioned in the course?

Answer 15

Statistical + internal + external + construct

Question 16

What types of IV manipulations are there?

Answer 16

Stimulus (e.g., training vs. no training)
Instructional (e.g., cooperate vs. compete)
Contextual (e.g., cluttered vs. clean room)

Question 17

In what ways can the DV be measured?

Answer 17

Subjective (report)
Cognitive (do task)
Behavioural
Neurobiological (fMRI)
Physiological (heart rate)

Question 18

What are the three necessary conditions to establish a causal relationship?

Answer 18

1. Relationship condition (A and B related)
2. Temporal antecedence condition (A prior to B)
3. Lack of alternative explanations condition (no alternative explanation C)

Question 19

How can you increase external validity?

Answer 19

Random sampling
Deliberate sampling for homogeneity or maximum differences
Generalising to modal instance (purposely sampling for particular instance like age)
Replication (to check external validity)

Question 20

What are ways to measure variables?

Answer 20

Tests
Questionnaires
Observations
Interviews
Objective data (e.g., salary)

Question 21

What is common method variance?

Answer 21

Variance attributable to measurement method > construct

Question 22

What are problems with observation as a measurement method?

Answer 22

Reactivity of participants to being observed
Observational biases: selective attention, selective encoding, memory, interpersonal factors

Question 23

What are problems with questionnaires as a measurement method?

Answer 23

Subjective
Are participants honest/ serious? Do understand questions?
Common method variance
Non-response bias

Question 24

What are the seven steps to choosing a questionnaire?

Answer 24

1. Theoretical framework
2. Concept analysis/ specification
3. General item attributes (abstract -> behaviour, cognition; determine sub scales)
4. Generate items
5. Evaluate items
6. Create questionnaire
7. Evaluate questionnaire

Question 25

What is important when generating questionnaire items?

Answer 25

Simple language (clarity, brevity)
Clear timeframe (bounded recall, restricted recall)

Question 26

What should be avoided when generating questionnaire items?

Answer 26

Open-ended questions
Negative questions
Frequency references
Leading questions
Double-barred questions

Question 27

What is the Socrates effect?

Answer 27

Filling in one item influences how you fill in later items

Question 28

What are shared biases by participants for the same method?

Answer 28

Social desirability
Negative affect
Acquiescence
Illusory correlations
Halo bias (e.g., rating someone similarly for different performance aspects)

Question 29

How can you see common method variance?

Answer 29

Multi-trait multi-method matrix

Question 30

What types of validity can you see in a MTMM matrix?

Answer 30

Convergent validity (similar constructs should be related)
Discriminant validity (dissimilar constructs should be unrelated)

Question 31

How can common method variance be reduced?

Answer 31

Using different sources to measure IV and DV
Separate measurement of IV and DV (temporally, proximally, psychologically)
Statistically control for bias

Question 32

What are the 6 research steps?

Answer 32

1. RQ
2. Measurement method
3. Sampling strategy
4. Measurement strategy
   [data collection]
5. Analyse data
6. Evaluate results

Question 33

How can you deal with extraneous variables in experiments?

Answer 33

Control by randomisation
Control by matching or holding constant
Sampling

Question 34

When does an extraneous variable become a confound?

Answer 34

When it systematically varies both the IV and the DV

Question 35

What kind of true experimental designs are there?

Answer 35

Matched design
Repeated-measures design
Simple two-group design
Before-after design
Factorial design
Parametric design

Question 36

What kind of quasi experimental designs are there?

Answer 36

Pre-experimental
- Single-group post-test only (-)
- Post-test only non-equivalent groups (-)
- Pre-test post-test single group design (-)
Pre-test post-test non-equivalent group
Interrupted time series (repeated measures pre and post intervention)
Regression-discontinuity (below/ above set criterion value into different groups)

Question 37

What are types of single-case experiments?

Answer 37

[A = baseline phase; B = intervention phase]
A-B designs (similar to interrupted time series)
A-B-A designs
A-B-A-B designs
Multiple baseline designs
- Across settings
- Across behaviours
- Across participants

Question 38

Why do non-experimental fixed designs exist?

Answer 38

Some things cannot be modified (e.g., age), should not be modified (e.g., smoking), are not feasible to modify (e.g., placement in school)

Question 39

What are types of non-experimental fixed designs?

Answer 39

Descriptive
Explanatory
Predictive

Question 40

What are the three types of time-dimensions?

Answer 40

Cross-sectional (1 point)
Longitudinal (2+ points)
- Panel designs (same participants)
- Trend designs (different participants)
Retrospective (simulate longitudinal)