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The Making of Modern Britain 1951-2007 > Towards a new consensus, 1987-1997 > Flashcards

Towards a new consensus, 1987-1997 Flashcards

1
Q

What were the key reasons for the fall of Margaret Thatcher from power in 1990?

A

Economic Issues, Political Issues, Poll Tax, Party Divisions, Labour’s Recovery, Geoffrey Howe’s Resignation

  • Economic Issues: 1987 stock market crash, ‘Lawson boom’, inflation at 10.9% by 1990.
  • Political Issues: Fear of electoral defeat after losing Eastbourne.
  • Poll Tax: Unpopular Community Charge leading to riots.
  • Party Divisions: Discontent over economic policies and Europe.
  • Labour’s Recovery: Increased popularity of Labour under Neil Kinnock.
  • Geoffrey Howe’s Resignation: Triggered leadership challenge.
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2
Q

What is John Major’s view of the myth surrounding Thatcher’s fall from power?

A

The myth that Thatcher was ousted at the height of her powers is false. By 1990, the economy was struggling, the Poll Tax was unpopular, and the Conservative Party was deeply divided.

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3
Q

How did John Major become Prime Minister?

A

Promoted from Chancellor after Thatcher’s resignation, seen as a compromise candidate

  • Supported by Douglas Hurd and others as the anti-Heseltine candidate.
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4
Q

What were the key economic issues faced by John Major’s government?

A

Economic Recession, Negative Equity, Public Spending

  • Economic Recession: Unemployment rose from 1.6 million to 2.6 million.
  • Negative Equity: Homeowners owed more on mortgages than homes were worth.
  • Public Spending: High public spending due to rising unemployment.
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5
Q

What was ‘Black Wednesday’ and its impact?

A

Forced to leave the ERM, interest rates raised, pound fell

  • Impact: Damaged Conservative Party’s reputation, weakened Major’s authority, economy stabilized afterward.
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6
Q

How did John Major perform in the 1992 General Election?

A

Conservatives won with 336 seats despite being behind in polls

  • Major’s campaign included soapbox speeches, regained Conservative support.
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7
Q

What were the main political scandals during John Major’s tenure?

A

Sex Scandals, Arms to Iraq, Cash-for-Questions

  • Sex Scandals: Involving ministers like David Mellor.
  • Arms to Iraq: Scott Enquiry revealed illegal arms deals.
  • Cash-for-Questions: Tory MPs accused of taking money to lobby.
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8
Q

What was the ‘Cash-for-Questions’ affair?

A

Tory MPs accused of accepting bribes to ask questions in Parliament

  • Impact: Hamilton lost a libel case, negative perception of Major government.
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9
Q

How did the media and satire portray John Major’s government?

A

Portrayed as dull and ineffective

  • Satire depicted him as a grey superhero, despite personal popularity.
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10
Q

How did John Major’s approach to Europe differ from Thatcher’s?

A

Aimed for Britain to be ‘at the heart of Europe’, more diplomatic approach

  • Thatcher had a more Eurosceptic stance.
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11
Q

How did the British economy perform after Black Wednesday in 1992?

A

Economy stabilized, unemployment slowed, housing market recovered

  • Benefits from financial deregulation and global economic recovery.
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12
Q

What was the state of the British economy in the 1997 election?

A

Positive indicators: unemployment down, productivity up, consumer spending increased

  • Struggled to gain credit for the recovery despite improvements.
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13
Q

What was Major’s stance on the poll tax?

A

Inherited the unpopular poll tax, replaced it with council tax in November 1991

  • £1.5 billion wasted on poll tax prior to its scrapping.
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14
Q

How did Labour’s position in the polls change in 1992?

A

Labour was ahead in polls before the election but Conservatives gained support

  • Labour had 41%, Conservatives 29% prior to election.
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15
Q

What were Major’s major policies and crises during his government?

A

Privatisation, Private Finance Initiative, Citizen’s Charter, BSE Crisis

  • Major policies included privatisation of coal and railways.
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16
Q

What political scandals affected Major’s government?

A

Over a dozen sex scandals, arms deals to Iraq, Cash-for-Questions

  • Included perjury convictions of Jeffrey Archer and Jonathan Aitken.
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17
Q

How did John Major contribute to the Northern Ireland peace process?

A

Worked with Irish Taoiseach, secret communications with Sinn Fein, Downing Street Declaration

  • IRA ceasefire followed by loyalist ceasefire.
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18
Q

Name key events in Northern Ireland from 1987 to 1993.

A

Gibraltar killings, Milltown Cemetery attack, IRA bombs, Warrington bomb

  • Significant violence and unrest during this period.
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19
Q

What were the major divisions in the Conservative Party by the 1990s?

A

Economic policy divisions, Europe divisions, Thatcher’s leadership style issues

  • Rivalries emerged among figures like Michael Portillo and John Redwood.
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20
Q

What happened in the 1995 Conservative leadership contest?

A

Major triggered it himself, faced John Redwood, won decisively

  • Heseltine became deputy PM after the contest.
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21
Q

How was Major portrayed in the media?

A

Satirised as dull and incompetent

  • Mocked by Tony Blair, known for ‘cones hotline’ incident.
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22
Q

What economic problems did John Major’s government face when he became Prime Minister at the end of 1990?

A

Declining manufacturing output
* High interest rates
* Sharp rise in unemployment
* Slump in house prices
* From mid-1991 to early 1992, unemployment rose from 1.6 million to 2.6 million
* Many homeowners faced negative equity and repossessions
* Recession affected traditional Conservative voters
* Government resorted to high public spending and increased borrowing to support the NHS and transport

Economic challenges were significant and included issues that directly affected the population’s financial stability and the government’s fiscal policies.

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23
Q

What occurred on Black Wednesday and what were the government’s actions?

A

Britain had joined the ERM in 1990 to combat inflation
* Required the pound to stay close to 2.95 German marks
* In September 1992, speculation caused the pound to fall
* Interest rates were raised from 10% to 12%, then to 15%
* Bank of England used reserves to buy up pounds
* Despite this, pound kept falling
* At 7pm on 16 September 1992, Chancellor Norman Lamont announced Britain was leaving the ERM live on TV

Black Wednesday is a significant event in British economic history, marking a critical failure in monetary policy.

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24
Q

What were the political and economic effects of Black Wednesday?

A

Politically disastrous:
* Conservatives lost economic credibility
* Major’s authority weakened
* Labour rose in the polls
* Major later called it ‘the beginning of the end’
Economically beneficial:
* Interest rates could now fall
* Exports increased due to devaluation
* Unemployment slowed
* Housing market recovered
* Compared to Germany, Britain had stronger growth

The consequences of Black Wednesday had lasting impacts on both the political landscape and the economic recovery of the UK.

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25
What key changes did Neil Kinnock make to modernise the Labour Party after the 1987 election defeat?
Kinnock moved Labour to the centre ground, overhauled party organisation, and hired Peter Mandelson as director of communications in 1985. He launched a policy review which by 1988 removed key 1983 manifesto commitments: withdrawal from the EEC, unilateral nuclear disarmament, and tax rises on high incomes.
26
What was Kinnock’s stance on Thatcherism in 1988?
Kinnock rejected the idea of a 'slide to the right' but argued Labour should improve the capitalist economy and provide fairer distribution. He claimed the ultimate concession to Thatcherism was letting it win again.
27
How did Kinnock change Labour’s relationship with trade unions?
In 1989, Kinnock ended Labour’s support for closed shop union agreements, signalling a split with the unions.
28
What criticism did Kinnock face after the 1992 election?
He was blamed for Labour’s unexpected defeat. The Sheffield Rally was seen as overconfident, and many voters struggled to see him as Prime Minister.
29
What was John Smith’s main contribution as Labour leader?
In 1993, he introduced One Member, One Vote (OMOV) for selecting parliamentary candidates, reducing union influence.
30
Why was John Smith considered a strong leader for Labour?
He was seen as calm, trustworthy on the economy, and respected in Parliament and on TV.
31
What were the limitations of John Smith's leadership?
He was cautious and resisted extending OMOV to party conference motions. His sudden death in 1994 at age 55 ended his leadership prematurely.
32
How did Tony Blair become Labour leader in 1994?
Following Smith's death, Blair and Gordon Brown made a deal for Blair to lead and Brown to support as strategist.
33
What was the significance of rewriting Clause IV in 1995?
Clause IV’s rewriting ended Labour's commitment to state ownership and symbolised the party’s break from socialism.
34
What was New Labour’s attitude towards economic policy?
Blair and Brown distanced Labour from 'tax-and-spend'. Brown pledged to stick to Conservative spending plans to show economic competence.
35
What key media figure helped improve Labour’s press relations?
Alastair Campbell, Blair’s press secretary, was a former journalist who expertly briefed the press and rebutted hostile stories.
36
How did Peter Mandelson contribute to Labour’s transformation?
As director of communications and later campaign strategist, he coordinated messaging and presentation.
37
What was Blair’s main appeal to voters in 1997?
Blair was charismatic, appealed to Middle England, women, and youth. Labour used all-women shortlists and projected a fresh, vibrant image.
38
What campaign tactics helped Labour win in 1997?
Labour had a disciplined spin machine, a strong media strategy, and a clear five-point pledge card.
39
What were the 5 pledges on Labour’s 1997 pledge card?
* Cut class sizes for 5–7 year-olds using assisted places scheme funds * Fast-track punishment for persistent young offenders * Cut NHS waiting lists by 100,000 using £100m from NHS red tape * Get 250,000 under-25s into work using a windfall levy on utilities * No income tax rise, cut VAT on heating to 5%, keep inflation/interest rates low
40
Why did the Conservatives struggle in the 1997 election?
Their message was confused, they were damaged by sleaze scandals, and divided over Europe.
41
What was the outcome of the 1997 election?
Labour: 418 seats, 43.2% of vote; Conservatives: 165 seats, 30.7%; Liberal Democrats: 52 seats, 16.8%; Others: 28 seats, 9.4%.
42
What does the term 'Portillo moment' refer to?
The shock defeat of Michael Portillo in Enfield by Stephen Twigg in 1997, symbolising the scale of the Tory defeat.
43
When did negative attitudes toward homosexuality peak in Britain and why?
In 1987, partly due to the emergence of AIDS, which was identified in the UK in 1981 and referred to as a 'gay plague'.
44
What government campaign was launched in 1985 in response to the AIDS crisis?
A prevention campaign including needle exchanges, leaflets to homes and schools, and the message 'Don't die of ignorance' via billboards, TV, and radio.
45
What significant event occurred in 1987 that helped de-stigmatise AIDS patients?
Princess Diana shook hands with an AIDS patient at the Royal Middlesex Hospital.
46
What was Section 28 and when was it passed?
A 1988 law banning the promotion of homosexuality by local authorities, perceived to apply to schools.
47
What actions did groups like Outrage! and Stonewall take for gay rights?
Outrage! used direct action, threatening to 'out' MPs; Stonewall backed legal challenges in the European Court of Human Rights.
48
What changes occurred in the age of consent for gay men during this period?
Reduced from 21 to 18 in 1994; full equality at 16 was achieved in 2000.
49
When was the ban on homosexuals in the armed forces lifted?
In 2000.
50
What does the British Social Attitudes Survey show about changing views on homosexuality?
Those saying same-sex relations were 'always or mostly wrong' dropped from 75% in 1987 to 50% in 1998.
51
What happened to divorce rates and births outside marriage from the early 1980s to 1990s?
Divorce rates hit record highs; births outside marriage rose from 12% to 30%.
52
What did Peter Lilley do in 1992 related to family values?
Sang a song at the Conservative conference criticising young mothers and absent fathers.
53
What was the purpose of the Child Support Agency, created in 1993?
To ensure absent parents paid maintenance for their children.
54
What was the Victoria Gillick campaign about?
She opposed contraceptive advice for under-16s without parental consent; the House of Lords overturned the restriction in 1985.
55
What law followed Mary Whitehouse’s campaign against 'video nasties'?
Video Recording Act (1994) – ensured British film classifications on videos.
56
What did John Major aim for upon becoming PM in 1990?
To create a classless society.
57
What issues challenged the monarchy between 1987–1997?
3 out of 4 royal marriages broke down; scandals; Queen criticised in 1997 after Princess Diana’s death.
58
What major financial change occurred for the Queen after the Windsor Castle fire in 1992?
She agreed to pay tax on private income and reduce the civil list.
59
Who were the Young British Artists (YBA) and when did they rise to prominence?
Artists like Damien Hirst and Tracey Emin, supported by Charles Saatchi, featured in the 1997 Sensation exhibition.
60
What was the 'Second Summer of Love' and when did it happen?
A rave culture explosion in 1988–89, tied to acid house music and ecstasy use.
61
What event led to the 1994 Criminal Justice and Public Order Act?
The Castlemorton rave in 1992 attended by up to 40,000 people.
62
What did the 1994 Criminal Justice Act define rave music as?
Music characterised by 'a succession of repetitive beats.'
63
Where did environmental protest movements begin in the early 1990s?
Twyford Down (M3 extension) in 1992, spreading to Newbury bypass, M11 link road, etc.
64
What was ‘third-wave feminism’ in the early 1990s?
A feminism that included gender, race, sexuality, and broke stereotypes.
65
What underground feminist music movement emerged in the early 1990s?
Riot Grrrl, with bands like Bikini Kill and Huggy Bear.
66
Who helped popularise 'Girl Power' in the mid-1990s?
The Spice Girls.
67
What new TV and cultural female identities emerged in the 1990s?
'Ladettes' (e.g., Ulrika Jonsson) and characters like Buffy the Vampire Slayer.
68
How did Margaret Thatcher view feminism?
She distanced herself, saying in 1982: 'I owe nothing to Women's Lib.'
69
Name three milestones for women in 1992 and 1994.
* 1992: First female Speaker (Betty Boothroyd) and MI5 head (Stella Rimmington) * 1994: First female priests ordained in Church of England; rape within marriage criminalised
70
What percentage of working-age women were employed by 1993?
68%
71
What percentage of employees were women by 1996?
50%
72
How did women's pay compare to men’s during this period?
Women earned 80% of what men earned.
73
When were married women first taxed separately from husbands?
During this period (exact year not given, but post-1990).
74
What shift occurred in the nature of riots in the early 1990s?
Riots in 1991–92 were led mostly by young white men from deprived council estates.
75
When were four non-white MPs elected and re-elected?
Elected in 1987, all re-elected in 1992 – first since the 1920s.
76
What happened to John Taylor in 1992?
Lost the Cheltenham seat amid alleged racism from local Conservatives.
77
What major race-related crime shocked Britain in 1993?
The murder of Stephen Lawrence, a black A-level student, by a gang of white youths.
78
What did the 1998 MacPherson Report conclude about the police?
The Metropolitan Police were institutionally racist and incompetent in handling the case.
79
What social tensions arose in the 1990s around immigration?
A rise in asylum seekers from Somalia, Afghanistan, Iraq and concerns about Muslim integration.
80
What controversy surrounded Salman Rushdie’s book The Satanic Verses?
Published in 1988; labelled blasphemous, leading to a fatwa and Rushdie going into hiding.
81
What was the Single European Act (SEA) and why did Thatcher support it initially?
The SEA aimed to establish a single European market. Thatcher supported it as it aligned with her free-market economic philosophy.
82
Why did Thatcher later become critical of the SEA?
She believed the SEA reduced the influence of nation states and was a step toward federalism, which she opposed.
83
What was the significance of Thatcher’s Bruges Speech (Oct 1988)?
She emphasised a vision of the EEC as a trade association of sovereign states, opposing 'ever closer political union' and federalism.
84
What tabloid symbolised Eurosceptic sentiment and how?
The Sun ran the headline 'Up Yours Delors', urging readers to oppose Jacques Delors, reflecting widespread anti-EU feeling.
85
When did Britain enter and leave the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM)?
Britain joined in July 1990 and withdrew in November 1992.
86
When was the Maastricht Treaty agreed, signed, and ratified?
Agreed: Dec 1991, Signed: Feb 1992, Ratified: June 1993.
87
What were the main features of the Maastricht Treaty?
Created the European Union (EU) from the EEC, set up conditions for a single currency, introduced intergovernmental cooperation in foreign and security policy, included the Social Chapter.
88
What opt-outs did John Major secure for Britain from Maastricht?
Opt-outs from the single currency and the Social Chapter.
89
How did John Major handle Conservative opposition to Maastricht?
Faced rebellion but won a vote by threatening a vote of no confidence.
90
Who were the key Eurosceptic Conservatives opposing Maastricht?
* Michael Portillo * John Redwood * Iain Duncan Smith * Bill Cash
91
What anti-EU groups formed in response to Maastricht?
* Anti-Federalist League (1993) * Referendum Party (1994)
92
What was Thatcher’s attitude toward EU expansion post-Cold War?
She supported expansion to include Eastern Europe to defeat communism and dilute the power of Brussels.
93
When did the EU expand from 12 to 15 states and which countries joined?
January 1995 – Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined.
94
What led to the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe?
Gorbachev's reforms, withdrawal of the Brezhnev Doctrine, and free elections in Poland created a domino effect.
95
What role did Thatcher and Reagan play in the Cold War's end?
Their hardline stance pressured Gorbachev to reform, while also negotiating with him.
96
Key events marking the Cold War’s end:
* June 1987 – USA & USSR agree to limit ballistic missiles * Feb 1989 – Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan * Nov 1989 – Fall of the Berlin Wall * Dec 1989 – Bush & Gorbachev declare Cold War over * Aug 1990 – USSR & USA oppose Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait * Dec 1991 – Dissolution of the USSR
97
Why was Thatcher not invited to the 1999 Berlin Wall anniversary?
Her opposition to German reunification and strained relations with Germany.
98
What caused the Yugoslav conflict?
Collapse of communism led to nationalism, with Slobodan Milosevic threatening minorities.
99
When did war break out in Bosnia, and what happened?
April 1992 – Bosnia war began; ethnic cleansing occurred, especially by Bosnian-Serbs.
100
How did Britain and the EU respond to the Bosnia conflict?
* Aug 1992: John Major hosted a UN-EU peace conference * Oct 1992: Vance-Owen plan proposed a settlement
101
What happened at Srebrenica in 1995?
Over 7,000 Bosnian men and boys massacred by Bosnian-Serbs, exposing UN peacekeeping limits.
102
How was peace eventually achieved in Bosnia?
* July 1995 – Srebrenica massacre led to shift in strategy * NATO air strikes * Dec 1995 – Dayton Peace Agreement signed
103
Why was NATO more effective than the UN in the Balkans?
NATO had a unified command, unlike the UN which relied on contributions from individual states.

The Making of Modern Britain 1951-2007 (7 decks)

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