Topic B: CELL ORGANELLES Flashcards
What is the structure of the nucleus?
The nucleus is the largest organelle within the eukaryotic cell. It is easily observed under the light microscope and can be spherical or ovoid. It has a diameter of 10-20picom
The nucleus is bound by a nuclear envelope, which is made up of a double membrane, continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum.
Nuclear pores present in the nuclear envelope allow small molecules to move between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. mRNA synthesised in the nucleoplasm can move into the cytoplasm for translation.
Nucleoplasm is the semi-fluid matrix that fills the nucleus.
Most of the cells DNA is located within the nucleus, DNA is wound to histone proteins to exist as chromatin.
Nucleoli contain ribosomal RNA genes (rRNA) for the synthesis of rRNA.
What are the functions of the nucleus?
The nucleus controls the cell’s activities
* The nucleus contains the hereditary material of an organism in the form of DNA. Genes found on DNA contain information which are passed from one generation to another
* DNA replication occurs in the nucleus, followed by mitosis (nuclear divsion) Whch results in two genetically identical daughter nuclei as the parent. The nuclear envelope disintegrates during nuclear division and the nuclear envelope reforms after the replicated DNA has been divided equally.
* The nucleus directs protein synthesis by synthesizing mRNA from the instructions on DNA. Ribosomes and tRNA in the cytoplasm translate the genetic language on mRNA into a polypeptide.
* The genes in the chromatin are responsible for the synthesis of ribosomal RNA (rRNA), messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA).
* The nucleolus is the site of rRNA synthesis. Ribosomal proteins imported from the cytoplasm are assembled with rRNA into large and small ribosomal Subunits in the nucleolus. These subunits exit the nucleolus through the nuclear pores, into the cytoplasm to assemble into ribosomes
What is the structure of the cytoplasm?
The cytoplasm is the semi-fluid mixture of the cytosol and organelles. The cytosol is the aqueous solution of ions, organic compournds excluding the the organelles
What is the structure of the ribosome?
They are roughly spherical about 20nm in diameter
They are non-membrane bound organelles
Ribosomes consist of two subunits a large subunit and a small subunit
Each subunit is made up of rRNA and ribosomal proteins Ribosomes exist either as free ribosomes or are attached to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER).
The ribosomes found in prokaryotes are known as 70S ribosome while in eukaryotes 80S ribosomes are present in the cytoplasm.
What is the function of the ribosomes?
Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis. Ribosomes translate the genetic message carried by messenger RNA (mRNA) into a polypeptide chain.
Free ribosomes are suspended in the cytosol and synthesise proteins that function within the cytosol
Ribosomes attached to rER synthesise proteins that are meant to be: packaged within organelles e.g. lysosomes
* secreted out of the cell
* included into the membranes
They are found extensively in cells that synthesise large quantities of proteins. For example, B-pancreatic cells which secrete insulin.
What is the endomembrane system?
The endomembrane system is the system of internal membranes within eukaryotic cells. The membranes of this system are related either through direct physical continuity or by transfer of membrane segments as tiny vesicles. Prokaryotes lack membrane bound organelles, thus they do not have an endomembrane system.
The endomembrane system is involved in: protein and lipid synthesis, transport of proteins and lipids to organelles or out of the cell or to be embedded into membranes.
The following organelles are part of the endomembrane system: Outer membrane of nuclear envelope Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Vesicles and lysosomes
What is the structure of the RER?
The rER consists of a three-dimensional network of interconnecting flattened membrane-bound sacs called cisternae (singular: cisterma).
The rER is lined with a thin single membrane Ribosomes are attached to the cytoplasmic side of the ER membranes.
The membrane is continuous with the outer nuclear membrane
The fluid-filled ER lumen or cisternal space is interconnected.
What are the functions of the rER?
- Folding of polypeptides into proteins. Molecular chaperones are proteins present into the cytoplasm and the ER lumen. They bind and assist other polypps to fold into its 3D conformation. The rER also exerts quality control on protein folding. Incompletely folded proteins are targeted to be degraded in the cytoplasm.
- Transport vesicles containing protein pinch off from rough ER and transport to the Golgi A.
As such the rER forms part of an intracellular transport system, where substances may be transported from the nucelus to exterior of the cell. - Chemical modification of proteins. Glycosylation involves the addition of a short carbohydrate chain which is covalently bonded to the protein.
- As polypeptdes destined to be membrane proteins are synthesised by the ribosomes, they are inserted into the ER membrane and anchored by their hydrophobic regions Membrane proteins can be transported to other components of the endomembrane system in the form of transport vesicles.
What is the structure of the SER?
The sER consists of a three-dimensional network of interconnecting membrane-bound tubules called cisternae SER has a more tubular structure than rER,
The sER is lined with a thin single membrane
There are no ribosomes attached to the outer surface It is often not continuous with the nuclear membrane although it may connect with the rER.
The network of sER allows increased surface area for enzymatic reactions and storage of enzymes.
the golgi apparatus is also involved in glycosylation
What is the function of the sER?
- Enzymes in the sER are important to the synthesis of lipids including phospholipids and steroids e.g. cholesterol. Cells that synthesise and secrete steroid hormones such as cells of the testis and ovaries are rich in sER.
- Enzymes in the sER facilitate detoxification of poisons and drugs, especially in liver cells. It usually involves addition of hydroxyl groups to make these harmful substances more soluble, and easier to flush out of the body.
- Calcium storage Calcium ions are pumped into and stored within the lumen of sER. They are released from the sER in response to extracellular signals.
- Phospholipids are synthesised and added to the membrane of the En Membrane phospholipids can be transported to other components of endomembrane system in the form of transport vesicles.
- The final step of glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen to glucose) is catalysed by glucose-6-phosphatase in the liver. Glucose-6-phosphatase is an enzyme found in sER lumen which catalyses the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to free glucose. Glucose molecules can exit the cell and enter the bloodstream increasing the level of blood glucose
What is the structure of the Golgi Apparatus?
The Golgi apparatus consists of one or several stacks of flattened, curved membrane-bound sacs called cisternae Golgi apparatus is bound by single-membrane
New cisternae are constantly formed at cis / receiving/forming face by fusing with transport vesicles that bud off from the rER and sER.
Golgi vesicles pinch off/ bud off frorm the trans / shipping / secreting face
The movement of Golgi vesicles is guided by cytoskeleton I microtubules to their target sites
What are the functions of the Golgi App?
There are more but this is most important
- The Golgi apparatus has a role in chemical modification of proteins and lipids transported from ER and sER respectively. Glycosylation involves the addition of short carbohydrate chain (oligosaccharide) to proteins and lipids to form glycoproteins and glycolipids respectively. Phosphorylation involves the adition of phosphate groups to protens hese modifications can serve as tags to direct proteins for transport to a specific location in the cell or to be secreted out of the cell. For example, mannose-6-phosphate tag is added to proteins or hydrolytic enzymes meant for lysosomes.
- Proteins that are formed in rER are transported in the form of transport vesicles to the Golgi apparatus where they are temporarily stored and concentrated. Proteins to be secreted are packaged into secretory vesicles. Secretory vesicles containing protein bud off / pinch off the Golgi apparatus and move through the cytosol via cytoskeleton towards the cell Surface membrane. As such, the Golgi apparatus also forms part of the intracellular transport system.
- rER synthesises lysosomal enzymes and are transported to the Golgi apparatus. The vesicles containing lysosomal enzymes pinch off the Golgi apparatus as lysosomes
Outline the process by which amino acids are processed in the cell.
1.Radioactive amino acids enter the cell through the cell surface membrane by facilitated diffusion or active transport. A polypeptide is synthesised by a ribosome attached to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) using radioactive amino acids.
2. The polypeptide enters the lumen / cisternal space of rough ER and folds into its three dimensional conformation to form protein. Transport vesicle containing protein buds off pinches off from the rER.
3. Transport vesicle containing protein fuses with the cis face of Golgi apparatus
4. The protein / enzyme, trypsinogen is chemically modified and concentrated in the Golgi apparatus.
5. Secretory vesicle pinches off/ buds off from trans face of Golgi apparatus
6. Secretory vesicle containing trypsinogen move along the cytoskeleton towards the cell surface membrane
7. Membrane of secretory vesicle fuses with the cell surface membrane, releasing the trypsinogen into pancreatic duct by exocytosis.
What are the structure and function of vesicles?
Vesicles are tiny sacs bound by single membrane. They are formed when a small area of membrane buds off / pinches off to enclose the substance. They are formed from rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Vesicles transport substances from one membrane compartment to another. Vesicles can also be formed via endocytosis when the cell surface membrane pinches off to form a vesicle containing substances taken in from the exterior of the cell.
What is the structure of the lysosome?
Lysosomes are small, spherical vesicles found in most eukaryotic cells. They range from about 0.2-0.5 um in diameter.
They are bound by single membrane.
Lysosomes contain hydrolytic enzymes such as proteases, nucleases, lipases and acid phosphatases. The enzymes work optimally under acidic conditions of pH 5.
These enzymes are synthesised on the rER and transported to the Golgi apparatus. Golgi vesicles containing these hydrolytic enzymes bud off the Golgi apparatus as lysosomes. They are absent in plant cells.
What is the function of the lysosome?
Digestion of food/foreign particles
A phagocytic vesicle is formed during phagocytosis. The lysosome membrane fuses with membrane of the phagocytic vesicle. Hydrolytic enzymes in lysosomes digest the contents into soluble products. These soluble products diffuse into the cytoplasm for cell use. Any undigested materials are released out of the cell by exocytosis. For example, amoeba engulfs food particles or macrophages engulf foreign particles such as bacteria by phagocytosis.
What is autophagy and autolysis?
**Autophagy **is a process by which unwanted or damaged organelles within the cell are degraded.
The unwanted or damaged organelle becomes surrounded by membrane to form a vesicle. Lysosome membrane fuses with the vesicle membrane and enzymes hydrolyse the contents. The organic materials are returned to the cytoplasm for reuse.
Autolysis is the self-destruction of a cell by the release of the contents or lysosomes within the cell.
What is the structure of the mitochondria?
The size of a mitochondrion varies; diameter: 0.5um-1.5um; length: 3um.1
It is bound by a double membrane. The outer membrane is a Smooth continuous boundary and inner membrane is extensively folded to form cristae increases surface area for proteins and enzymes to be embedded in the inner membrane such as Electron carriers in electron transport chain are proteins which transfer -10um of electrons to other electron carriers. Stalked particles containing ATP synthase which catalyse the synthesis of ATP The inner and outer membranes are separated by an intermembrane space. The semi-fluid mitochondrial matrix contains: circular DNA 70S ribosomes enzymes of Link reaction and Krebs cycle glycogen granules some RNA, protein crystals and lipids Mitochondria are found in all aerobic eukaryotic cells.
What are the functions of the mitochondria?
Mitochondrion is the site of cellular respiration during which glucose is metabolised resulting in the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) via a series of biochemical reactions. ATP is the energy source for the cellular processes. The extensively folded cristae are the site of oxidative phosphorylation. The matrix is the site of Link reaction and Krebs cycle.
It is also the site of protein synthesis using its own DNA and ribosomes.
What is the structure of the chloroplast?
Its size range from 5um-10um. It is bound by a double membrane. The outer membrane is a smooth and continuous boundary while inner membrane gives rise to thylakoids and lamellae The thylakoids are stacked to form grana (singular: granum). The stacking of thylakoids increases surface area for proteins, enzymes and pigments to be embedded in the thylakoid membrane such as Electron carriers in electron transport chain are proteins which transfers electrons to other electron carriers.
Stalked particles containing ATP synthase which catalyse the synthesis of ATP Photosystems containing chlorophyll which absorb light energy. The stacks of grana are joined by intergranal lamellae.
The interior of the chloroplast is filled with a gel-like matrix called the stroma. which contains: circular DNA. 70S ribosomes, enzymes of the Calvin cycle starch grains and lipid droplets
What is the function of the chloroplast?
Chloroplast is the site of photosynthesis. The light energy is trapped by the pigments and used to synthesise organic compounds such as sugars from carbon dioxide and water. The thylakoid membranes or grana are the site of light dependent reaction. The stroma is the site of light independent reaction (Calvin cycle).
What are the similarities between mitochondrion and chloroplast?
Both are bounded by a double membrane
Both contain circular DNA
Both divide by binary fission
Both contain 70S ribosome
Both contain electron transport chain and stalked particles containing ATP Synthase embedded in the inner membrane.
Both are approximately 1-10um in size.
What is the structure of centrioles?
They exist as a pair of rod-like structures.
They are positioned at right angles to each other
They are composed of nine sets of triplet microtubules arranged in a ring.
They are found next to the nucleus when the cell is not dividing. Centrioles are found only in animal cells and lower plant cells and are absent in higher plant cells.
What is the function of centrioles?
During cell division in animal cells, centrioles replicate and will migrate to opposite poles of the cell. Centrioles are involved in organising the microtubules into spindle fibres which align the chromosomes during metaphase and pull the chromosomes apart during anaphase
What is the cytoskeleton?
The cytoskeleton is a network of fibres extending throughout the cytoplasm. It organises the structures and activities within the cell. There are 3 main types of fibres in the cytoskeleton namely, microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate flaments.
What is the structure of microtubules?
They are hollow, unbranched, cylindrical fibres about 25nm in diameter.
They are made up of a helically arranged globular protein called tubulin. They are designed to resist compression. They have a certain degree of stiffness and run a straight course in the cytoplasm. They are able to lengthen and shortened by polymerisation and depolymerisation of tubulin.
What is the function of microtubules?
The movement of chromosomes during cell division is facilitated by the lengthening and shortening of microtubules.
The movement of organelles is facilitated by motor proteins carrying organelles along the microtubules to their destination.
It provides mechanical support and maintains the shape of the cell. It is also dynamic and can be quickly dismantled and reassembled at another part of the cell, changing the shape of the cell.
What is the structure of microfilaments?
Microfilaments are the thinnest class of the cytoskeletal fibres of about 7nm in diameter They are made up of solid rods of globular protein called actin. Each filament consists of a twisted double chain of actin molecules. Microfilaments are designed to resist tension.
What is the function of microfilaments?
Microfilaments are involved in cleavage furrow formation during cell division. As ring of actin-myosin contracts, a cleavage furrow forms and deepens until a dividing animal cell is pinched into two daughter cells.
Microfilaments play a part in cell motility, particularly in muscle contraction. Myosin is a protein that associates with actin filaments laid parallel to one another. Muscle contractions result from the actin and myosin filaments sliding past one another, shortening the cell. Microfilaments maintain and changes cell shape. For example, the formation of pseudopodia in an amoeba is due to the assembly and disassembly of microfilaments in the cytoplasm. In plant cels, cytoplasmic streaming is brought about actin-myosin interactions. The circular flow of cytoplasm, over parallel actin flaments, is important for the distribution of materials within the cell.
What is the structure of the plant cell wall?
The plant cell wall contains mainly of pectin, cellulose and hemicellulose.
The cell wall is composed of cellulose microfibrils running through a matrix of complex polysaccharides, pectins and hemicellulose.
What is the function of the plant cell wall?
The cell wall provides mechanical strength and support for individual cells and for the plant as a whole. The cell wall determines and maintains the shape of plant cells because of its high tensile strength.
The cell wall is highly rigid and resistant to expansion, thus allowing the development of turgidity when water enters the cell by osmosis. It also prevents cell lysis.
The orientation of cellulose microfibrils limits and helps to control cell growth.
