Topic 9 - Gender Flashcards
What is sex?
A person’s biological (genetic) status as either male or female. This is determined by different chromosomes in the first instance (XX vs XY), which then influence hormonal differences and differences in anatomy (e.g. reproductive organs, body shape, hair growth etc.). Sex is therefore innate and the result of nature.
What is gender?
A person’s psychological status as either masculine or feminine. This includes all the attitudes, roles and behaviours that we associate with ‘being male’ or ‘being female’ and these are heavily influenced by social norms and cultural expectations. Therefore, gender is at least partly environmentally determined and so is due to nurture as well as nature.
What is gender identity disorder?
This is when someone’s biological sex doesn’t match the way they feel and the gender they see themselves as. They could be described as transgender.
What is a sex role stereotype ands give an example?
Concepts that are subconsciously taught, suggesting that a certain gender acts in a certain way. For example, girls liking pink.
Describe research to support sex role stereotypes… Furham and Farragher.
(2000) – carried out a study of sex-role stereotypes in TV adverts to see what men and women were portrayed as doing in adverts.
Describe research to support sex role stereotypes… Ingalhalikar et al.
(2014) – scanned the brains of 949 young men and women to map the connections of different parts of the brain.
Describe research to support sex role stereotypes… Seavey et al.
(1975) – dressed a three-month-old in a yellow baby suit. One third of the participants were told that the infant was male, another third were told that the infant was female, and the other third were not given a gender label. Participants were left to interact with the child for three minutes. Also in the room were some toys: a ball, a rag doll and a plastic ring.
Describe research to support sex role stereotypes… Rubin et al.
(1977) – asked parents to describe their new babies within 24 hours of the baby being born.
What is androgyny?
Andro = maleGyny = female
A balance between both female and male characteristics. A concept introduced by Sandra Bem in the 1970s
What did Ben suggest?
That high androgyny is associated with psychological well-being. Bem suggested that androgynous people are more comfortable with who they are compared to those who show more conventionally differentiated male or female traits as there are not expectations forced upon them about how they should behave.
Bem argued that it has been usual in Western culture to encourage boys to inhibit the ‘feminine’ side of their personality and girls may learn to inhibit the ‘masculine’ side of their personality.
What is the BSRI proposed by Ben in 1974
This scale presents 20 characteristics that would be commonly identified as ‘masculine’ (e.g. competitive, aggressive), 20 that would be typically judged as ‘feminine’ (e.g. tender, gentle), and 20 ‘neutral’ traits as distractors.
These were narrowed down from the original 200 by asking 100 US undergraduates which personality traits they thought were desirable for men or women.
Respondents are required to rate themselves on a 7-point scale for each item (1 = ‘never true of me’; 7 = ‘always true of me’).
Bem made it possible to test for masculinity and femininity independently. On traditional tests, if you selected a masculine item, you couldn’t select a feminine one.
Numerical scores for all of the masculine items are summed as are those for all of the feminine items.
A03 (Adams and Sherer 1985). - Explain evidence challenging Bem’s argument.
Some researchers have argued that people who display a greater proportion of masculine traits are better adjusted as these are more highly valued in Western society. This suggests that Bem’s research may not have taken adequate account of the social and cultural context in which it was developed.
Explain A03 - suggesting that the BSRI scale has high test-retest reliability.
The BSRI was developed by asking 50 male and 50 females judges to rate 200 traits in terms of how desirable they were for men and women. The traits that were the highest scorers in each category became the 20 masculine and 20 feminine traits on the scale. The BSRI was then piloted with over 1000 students and the results broadly corresponded with the participants own description of their gender identity. This suggests the BSRI has a degree of validity. A follow up study involving a smaller sample of the same students revealed similar scores when the students were tested a month later.
Explain A03 - suggesting that Bem’s explanation is not complete and too simplistic.
Hint: Golombok and Fivush (1994).
It has been suggested that gender identity is too complex to be reduced to a single score. Alternatives to the BSRI have been developed; for instance, the personal attribute questionnaire (PAQ), which replaces Bems masculinity-femineity dimension with one which means instrumentality and expressivity. However like the BSRI, the PAQ is still based on the idea that gender identity can be quantified. Golombok and Fivush (1994) have claimed that gender identity is a much more global concept than is suggested by these scales. In order to understand gender identity more fully, the broader issues should be considered, such has the persons interests and perception of their own abilities.
Explain A03 - suggesting that Bem’s research may be culturally based / lacks validity as its outdated.
The BSRI was developed over 40 years ago and behaviours that are regarded as ‘typical’ and ‘acceptable’ - particularly in relation to gender – have changed significantly since then. Bems scale is made up of stereotypical ideas of masculinity and femininity that may be outdated and lacking in temporal validity. In addition, the scale was devised using a panel of judges who were all from the united states. Western notions of ‘maleness’ and ‘femaleness’ may not be shared across all cultures and societies.
What is gender dysphoria?
A mismatch between a person’s sex and their gender
What does BSRI stand for?
The Bem sex role inventory.
High levels of androgyny are associated with?
Psychological well-being.
Gender identity is difficult to measure using questionnaires as it is a..
Hypothetical construct.
Genes determine …
whether you are male or female and the production of hormones that affect your gender.
Chromosomes determine…
biological sex and which hormones are produced. These hormones then determine our gender identity and development.
What is the male hormone and what are the effects on the body including gender related behaviour?
Testosterone - Controls the development of male sex organs and secondary sexual characteristics in puberty. Higher levels are linked to higher levels of aggression and so explain male’s higher aggression levels compared to women.Nanne Van de Poll et al. (1988) showed that females rats injected with testosterone became more aggressive.
What is the female hormone and what are the effects on the body including gender related behaviour?
Oestrogen - Determines female secondary sexual characteristics (e.g. breast development) and menstruation. Higher levels are linked to higher levels of aggression and so explain male’s higher aggression levels compared to women.Nanne Van de Poll et al. (1988) showed that females rats injected with testosterone became more aggressive.
Linked to heightened emotionality and irritability during the menstrual cycle and so explains female’s greater emotional displays than men.Pre-menstrual syndrome (PMS) when these effects become a diagnosable disorder.
What is oxytocin?
It is released in massive quantities during labour and after childbirth.
Promotes feelings of bonding in both men and women and evokes feelings of contentment and calmness.
it is related to orgasm and faster wound healing. Related to Facilitates mother-baby bonding.
It reduces the stress hormone cortisol to dampen the fight or flight response. In females, the alternative tend and befriend is triggered. This evolved response ensures that females protect their young and form protective alliances with other women (gender). The same does not happen in men because testosterone dampens the effect of this hormone, explaining the gender difference. Reduces Cortisol (Stress hormone) and is referred to as the ‘love hormone’. Roughly equal amounts in the sexes during kissing/ sexual intercourse.
A03 - research to suggest that sex hormones do exert some influence on gender-related behaviours.
The determining influence of chromosomes on gender identity is supported by the Case of David Reimer. In relation to sex hormones, James Dabbs et al. (1995) found, in a prison population, that offenders with the highest levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes. Stephanie Van Goozen et al. (1995) studied transgender individuals who were undergoing hormone treatment and being injected with hormones of the opposite sex. Transgender women (male-to-female) showed decreased in aggression and visuo-spatial skills whilst transgender men (female to male) showed the opposite.
A03 - research to suggest there is an amount of conflicting evidence for the biological perspective.
In a double blind study conducted by Tricker et al. (1996), 43 males were given either a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo. No significant differences in aggression were found after the ten-week period between the two groups. Similarly, Slabbekoorn et al. (1999) demonstrated that sex hormones had no significant effect on gender-related behaviour. It is also the case that many studies of biological factors in gender involve small samples of unusual people or are conducted on animals limiting the extent to which meaningful generalisations can be made.
A03 for biological explanations - research seems to suggest there is an amount of conflicting evidence for the biological perspective.
Many commentators have questioned the effects of Oestrogen levels on a women’s mood and object to the medical category pre-menstrual syndrome on the grounds that it stereotypes female experience and emotion. Feminist critiques (Rodin 1992) claim that PMS is a social construction – not a biological ‘fact’ but a way of privileging certain groups over others. Feminists have pointed to the medicalisation of omens lives and the dismissal of women’s emotions, especially anger, by explaining them in biological terms.
A03 for GID - This research to suggest there is an overemphasise on nature.
If gender identity is purely down to biology then we would expect to find many more differences in male and female behaviour than there actually are. In a major review of research in this area, Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) found significantly more differences in behaviour within the sexes than between the sexes. Alternative explanations such as the SLT would point to the importance of social context in the learning of our gender identity and gender role. The influence of social norms would explain cross-cultural differences in gender-role behaviour, and the fact that, in western society at least, males and females are gradually becoming more androgynous in their behaviour.
What is GID?
A psychiatric condition listed in the DSM-5. It is characterised by strong, persistent feelings (at least 6 months) of identification with the opposite gender, and discomfort with one’s own assigned sex. I.e. a mismatch between the biological sex and the gender identity (psychological experience of self as male or female). It must cause significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other areas of functioning.
It is also referred to as transgenderism or gender dysphoria.
Explain biological explanations of GID - genetic factors with evidence to support.
● Genetic factors – GID may have a genetic basis (it’s inherited) in that it may be transmitted from parent to child via genes
● Coolidge et al. (2002) assessed 157 twin pairs (96 MZ and 61 DZ) for evidence of gender dysphoria using the DSM-4. The prevalence of GID was estimated to be 2.3% with 62% of these cases said to be accounted for by genetic variance.
● Heylens et al. (2012) compared 23 MZ twins with 21 DZ twins where one of each pair was diagnosed with gender dysphoria. They found that nine (39%) of the MZ twins were concordant for gender dysphoria compared to none of the DZ.
This provides support for genetic factors for gender identity disorder.
Explain biological explanations of GID - Brain sex theory with evidence to support.
This is based on areas of male and female brains taking a different form (dimorphic). GID may be caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with (i.e. don’t match) the individual’s biological sex. Zhou et al. (1995) studied the BSTc (bed nucleus of stria terminalis – linked to emotional responses) which is assumed to be fully developed at age 5 and around 40% larger in males than females. Post- mortem studies of six male-to-female transgender individuals found the BSTc was a similar size to that of a typical female brain.
Kruijver et al. (2000) studied the same brain tissue but focused on the number of neurons in the BSTc – and found the six transgender individuals showed a sex-reversed identity pattern with an average BSTc Neuron number in the female range.
Explain psychological explanations of GID - Psychoanalytic theory with evidence to support.
● Ovesey and Pearson (1973) emphasises social relationships within the family as a cause of gender dysphoria. This is used to explain GID in males only.
● GID is caused by the child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established. The child fantasises a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety so that the danger of separation is removed.
● Therefore, the child becomes the mother and adopts a female gender identity (GID). Stoller (1973) reports that in interviews with GID biological males they were seen to display overly close relationships with their mothers.
Explain psychological explanations of GID - dual pathway theory with evidence to support.
● This explanation is based on gender schema theory and emphasises individual differences in gender identity. The theory suggests two pathways of gender development, the dual pathway theory (Liben and Bigler, 2002).
● The first pathway suggests the development of gender schema which then direct gender-appropriate attitudes and behaviour as part of ‘normal development’ as proposed by Martin and Halverson.
● The second ‘personal’ pathway describes how the child’s gender attitudes are affected by his or her activity. It suggests that GID occurs when a child’s personal interests (e.g. the toys they want to play with) become more dominant than the gender identity. These interests in turn influence gender schema. E.g. a boy who plays with dolls may come to believe that playing with dolls is for boys and girls.
● This leads to the development of non-sex-typed schema. In most people, this may result in androgynous behaviour and a more flexible attitude to gender, but in a small minority, it may lead to the eventual formation of an opposite gender identity (GID).
Cognitive-developmental explanations suggests …
that a child’s mental concept or understanding (i.e. thinking) of gender (including what counts as appropriate gender roles, behaviours and attitudes) becomes more sophisticated with age.
What is Kohlbergs theory?
Kohlberg’s (1966) theory of gender development is a cognitive-developmental one i.e. he suggests that a child’s understanding of gender (including what counts as appropriate gender roles, behaviours and attitudes) becomes more sophisticated with age.
- It draws on the idea that the way we think (e.g. complexity and abstract thinking) changes and becomes more sophisticated as we get older because of physical changes in the brain.
- The consequence of this is that gender development occurs in three stages (it’s a stage theory). Children naturally progress through the stages as their way of thinking matures. This happens gradually rather than sudden transitions and so the ages suggested by Kohlberg for each stage are approximate.
For this question what age groups can answer the question: Age 3, 5, 7.
Are you a boy or girl?
Age 3 ✔️
Age 5 ✔️
Age 7 ✔️
For this question what age groups can answer the question: Age 3, 5, 7.
Which one of the two pictures on the right is like you?
Age 3 ✔️
Age 5 ✔️
Age 7 ✔️
For this question what age groups can answer the question: Age 3, 5, 7.
When you were a baby, were you a boy or a girl?
Age 3 ❌
Age 5 ✔️
Age 7 ✔️
For this question what age groups can answer the question: Age 3, 5, 7.
When you grow up, will you be a mummy or daddy?
Age 3 ❌
Age 5 ✔️
Age 7 ✔️
For this question what age groups can answer the question: Age 3, 5, 7.
Could you ever be a mummy?
Age 3 ❌
Age 5 ✔️
Age 7 ✔️
For this question what age groups can answer the question: Age 3, 5, 7.
If a boy wore a dress, would they be a girl?
Age 3 ❌
Age 5 ❌
Age 7 ✔️
What is a gender schema?
A gender schema is an organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that help us to organise and interpret information in the brain. They guide us to understand our own gender and gender-appropriate behaviour.
What is the gender schema theory?
The gender schema theory is a cognitive-developmental explanation of gender development that was proposed by Martin and Halverson (1981).
It argues that gender-relevant information before gender constancy is achieved.
Gender identity is enough for a child to identify themselves as a boy or girl and take interest in behaviours that are appropriate for their behaviour.
Also suggests that acquiring a gender schema affects later behaviour, especially in terms of memory and attention.
What age is gender identity established?
2-3 years old.
A03 for gender schema theory - Describe Martin and Halverson’s research.
(1983) found that children under 6 were more likely to remember photographs of gender-consistent behaviour than photographs of gender-inconsistent behaviour when tested a week later. Children tended to change the sex of the person carrying out the gender-inconsistent activity when asked to recall them. Additionally, Martin and Little (1990) found that children under the age of four, who showed no signs of gender stability or constancy, demonstrated strongly sex-typed behaviours and attitudes about what boys and girls are allowed to do (sex-role stereotypes).
A03 for gender schema theory suggesting that children tend to hold very fixed gender attitudes.
This theory can account for the fact that young children tend to hold very fixed and
rigid gender attitudes. Information that conflicts with existing schema, such as the idea of women working on a building
site, would be discounted or ignored in favour of information that confirms
ingroup schema, such as a women working
as a secretary. Similarly, children display
a strong ingroup bias in terms of how they
process information, and this is explained
by the fact that children pay more attention
to information that is relevant to their own
experiences.
Explain the psychodynamic explanation of gender development.
● Before the phallic stage, children have no concept of gender identity.
● Gender development occurs in the phallic stage of development (age 3-6 years) through resolution of either the Oedipus (boys) or Electra complex (girls).
● Resolving the complexes involves the child identifying with the same-sex parent (identification with the aggressor), and then internalising and adopting the gender-related attitudes and behaviours of the same-sex parent.
● Therefore, children receive a ‘second-hand’ gender identity all at once at the end of the phallic stage.
● Resolving the complexes also develops the superego as the child adopts the parent’s morals.
What is identification?
A desire to be associated with a particular person or group, often because they possess certain desirable characteristics.
What is internalisation?
When an individual adopts the attitudes and/or behaviours of another.
Explain A03 for the psychodynamic explanation of gender development that suggests Freud’s theory relies on the child having two parents of different genders.
Freud’s theory relies on the child having two parents of different genders, so they are able to manage the Oedipus and Electra complex effectively. Therefore, it is logical to assume that being raised in a non-nuclear family would have an adverse effect on a child’s gender development. Evidence doesn’t support this assumption. Golombok et al. (1983) found that children from single-parent families develop normal gender identities. Similarly, Green (1978) studied a sample of 37 children who were raised by gay and transgender parents and discovered that only one had a gender identity that was described as ‘non-typical’.
Explain A03 for the psychodynamic explanation of gender development that suggests Freud’s theory is pseudoscientific as his key ideas cannot be falsified.
Freud has often been criticised for the lack of scientific rigour in his methods, and that because of their unconscious nature, many of the concepts he refers to in his account of gender development are untestable. For example, as castration anxiety is repressed, it is almost impossible to test whether boys experience this anxiety and that resolving the Oedipus complex leads to gender identity as a result of identification and internalisation.This is in contrast with other explanations of gender development that are based on objective, verifiable evidence derived from laboratory experiments, e.g. the biological approach.
Explain A03 for the psychodynamic explanation of gender development that suggests that Freud has criticism of his understanding of the Oedipus complex.
Many commentators have criticised Freuds concept of the Oedipus complex and the use of the Little Hans case study particularly as support for the idea. As well as this, Freuds theory implies that sons of very punitive and harsh fathers should go on to develop a more robust sense of gender identity than other boys because higher levels of anxiety should produce stronger identification with the aggressor. However, this is not supported by evidence and in fact the reverse would seem to be true: that boys with more liberal fathers tend to be more secure in their masculine identity (Blackmore and Hill, 2008).
What is direct reinforcement?
When someone is praised or encouraged for their behaviour which makes it more likely to be repeated in the future. In terms of gender, children are more likely to be praised and encouraged (directly reinforced) for gender-appropriate behaviour.
What is the SLT?
SLT acknowledges the role that social context plays in development and suggests that gender is learned from observing others who model and reinforce gender role behaviours and then imitating.
This includes significant others that the child comes into contact with (parents, peers, teachers etc.) as well as the wider influence of culture and the media.
At birth, girls and boys are psychologically the same. Gender differences are learned through the differences in the ways boys and girls are treated.
Therefore, it draws attention to the role of nurture in shaping gender development.
What is differential reinforcement?
When people are praised or encouraged for certain behaviours in preference to others, making that behaviour more likely to be repeated in the future. In terms of gender, boys may be reinforced for being active, assertive and engaging in rough and tumble play, whilst girls may be reinforced for being passive, gentle and staying close to their parent.
Research evidence to support SLT.
Smith and Lloyd (1978) studied 4-6-month-old babies who (irrespective of actual sex) were dressed half the time in boys’ clothes and half the time in girls’ clothes. They were observed interacting with adults when dressed in each type of clothes.
A03 for SLT - The influence of age and maturation on learning gender concpets is not a factor considered by social learning theory and this may be a limitation.
Critics have argued that social learning theory does not provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age. There are some age limitations, for example motor reproduction as a mediational process suggests that children may struggle to perform behaviours if they are not physically or intellectually capable. However, the general implication is that modelling of gender-appropriate behaviour can occur at any age, I.e from birth onwards. This may not be the case, however. Dubin (1992) suggests that, although the child may take note of the behaviour of same-sex role models at an early age, selection and imitation of gender-role behaviour does not come until later. This is consistent with Kohlberg’s theory that children do not become active in theirgender development until they reach gender constancy.
Explain A03 - SLT acknowledge the role of innate, biological behaviours but doesn’t incorporate them into the account.
We have seen how in the case of David Reimer, it was not possible to raise a biological male as female and override chromosomal influence. Modern researchers are more likely to accept the biosocial theory of gender: that there are innate biological differences between boys and girls that are reinforced through social interaction and cultural expectations.
What are gender roles?
A set of behaviours and attitudes that are considered appropriate for one gender and inappropriate for another.
Social learning theorists see gender-role behaviour as largely determined by the environment and socialisation.
Explain the effect of media on gender roles.
Children observe many examples of gender behaviour in the media and learn gender-role behaviour via social learning theory processes. They identify with the same-sex role models. These role models could be sports stars, actors, musicians, book characters etc. They are more likely to imitate role models who are attractive, similar to them (same sex) or higher status as their behaviour is more likely to be reinforced. These role models model (often stereotypical) gender-role behaviour such as a boy seeing a professional footballer score a goal in the world cup. If the boys sees the footballer receive the golden boot for his play, vicarious reinforcement occurs and so the boy is more likely to imitate (model) the gender-role behaviour of playing football. Seeing others succeed raises the child’s beliefs in their own capabilities of carrying out such behaviours in the future (self-efficacy) and so makes imitation more likely. Therefore, children gradually learn gender roles (gender-role behaviour) from the media.
Key studies to support medias effect on gender roles.
Furnham and Faragher (2000) conducted a study of TV adverts. They found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts, whereas women were often seen occupying familial roles within domestic setting.
McGhee and Freuh (1980) conducted a longitudinal study over 15 months and found that children aged 6-12 who watched more than 25 hours a week of TV held more sex-stereotype perceptions than those who watched 10 hours or less. This was especially true for male stereotypes.
Bussey and Bandura (1999) Men are seen as independent, ambitious ‘advice givers’ whereas women as seen as dependent, unambitious and advice seekers.
Margaret Mead in 1935 conducted across cultural study of gender roles in tribal groups in New Guinea: what did she find?
- The Arapesh were gentle and responsive similar to western femininity.
- The Mundugumor were aggressive and hostile similar to western masculinity
- The Tchambuli women were dominant, and organised village life. The men were passive and considered to be decorative.
This suggests that gender roles may be culturally determined and learned through socialisation processes.
Explain the effect of culture on gender roles.
● There are many cross-cultural similarities in gender roles. For example, Munroe and Munroe (1975) found that in most societies, division of labour is organised along gender lines with males typically the ‘breadwinners’ and females often the ‘nurturers.’
● Buss (1995) found consistent patterns in mate preference in 37 countries across all continents. In all cultures, women sought men who could offer wealth and resources, whilst men looked for youth and physical attractiveness in a potential partner.
A03 for culture and media influence on gender roles - difficult to establish cause and effect.
Although it is generally concluded that the media has a considerable influence on the formation and maintenance of children’s gender-role stereotypes, it is difficult to establish cause and effect within these studies. It may be that the media output reflects prevailing social norms about males and females instead. Alternatively, the media may cause such norms by depicting men and women in particular ways. The vast majority of children are exposed to the media on a regular basis and therefore control groups of children who are beyond the media’s influence are not available for comparison. Such a comparison would make the direction of the media’s influence easier to establish.
A03 for culture and media influence on gender roles - the media is a means of changing gender-role stereotypes by presenting men or women in unusual roles (counter-stereotyping).
The media is a means of changing gender-role stereotypes by presenting men or women in unusual roles (counter-stereotyping). For example, the Disney film ‘Brave’ challenged the traditional notions of masculinity and femininity. Pingree (1978) found that gender stereotyping was reduced when children were shown TV adverts featuring women in non-stereotypical roles. However, caution should be exercised as pre-adolescent boys’ stereotypes were found to become stronger following exposure to the non-traditional models. Such a ‘backlash’ may be explained by the boy’s desire to maintain a view that ran counter to the adult view. We cannot be sure whether internal validity can be met.
A03 for culture and media influence on gender roles - Mead’s research has been criticised for not separating her own opinions from her description of Samoan life (observer bias) and for making sweeping generalisations based on a relatively short period of study.
Mead’s research has been criticised for not separating her own opinions from her description of Samoan life (observer bias) and for making sweeping generalisations based on a relatively short period of study. Additionally, the indigenous people may have told her what she wanted to hear, with participants reporting that they had created a false picture of their behaviour. Freeman (1983) conducted a follow-up study of the Samoan people decades after Meads original and argued that meads findings were flawed as she had been misled by some of the participants. However, Freeman has been challenged for supporting his own theoretical viewpoint. This suggests that Mead’s results may not be internally valid and so from the results it is difficult to strongly support the influence of culture on gender roles.
