Topic 9: Forensic Psychology

Question 1

Top-down Approach

Answer 1

• Originated in the U.S
• An analysis of previous crimes creates a profile of a likely offender. A profiler uses this knowledge to narrow the field of possible suspects. Unlike the bottom-up approach, the top-down approach relies on the intuition and beliefs of the profiler. It’s less scientific.

There are 6 stages of the top-down approach (Douglas et al, 2006)
1) Profiling Input: Descriptions of crime scene (photographs and sketches), background info about the victim (employment, relationships, habits etc), details of the crime (weapons, cause of death aoutopsy report).
2) Decision Profiling: Profiler starts to make decisions about the data and identify meaningful patterns. Factors considered are: murder type (mass, spree or serial?), Time (night or day? Was the muder over a long time or short time?), Location (was the crime scene e.g. where a person was kidnapped) the same as the murder scene?)
3) Crime Assessment: Crime is classified as organised or disorganised or mixed (characteristics of both). Chain of events in pieced together before, during and after the commision of a crime. Chronology’s made.
4) Criminal profile: The profiler can now use the info to hypothesis about the type of person who commited the cime. This may include: age, sex, location, social status, intelligence, physiological characteristics, etc.
5) Crime Report: A written report is given to the police and persons matching the profile are evaluated. If new evidence is generated and/or no suspect is identified, then the process goes back to step 2.
6) Arrest & Review: If a suspect is apprehended the profile-generating process is reviewed to check for validity.

Question 2

Disorganised vs organised types of offenders

Answer 2

Disorganised type of offender: The crime scene is left with many clues such as fingerprints, there is little evidence of engagement with the victim, and the offender has lower intelligence and competence.
Organised type of offender: This type of offender commits planned crime and may engage in violent fantasies with the victim and is high in intelligence and socially competent.

Question 3

Evaluate the top-down approach

Answer 3

• useful for narrowing down a list of suspects and predicting future criminal behavior.Helpful when there isn’t much physical evidence. Copson questioned 184 US police officer of whom 82% said the technique was operationally useful and over 90% said they would use it again.
• The original data on which the diorganised/organised classification is based may be flawed: The data came from interviews with 36 of the most dangeous and sexually motivated murderers - these individuals are highly manipulatively, reducing the reliability of the data. They are also extrem cases making findings difficult to generalise to all crimes,.
• Lacks validity and reliability: Alison et al - Gave 2 groups police officers the same profile, but each group was provided details of 2 very different offenders (one of these versions were real). In each group 75% rated the profile as somewhat accurate and 50% as generally/very accurate. Argues that the predictions in profiles are ambiguous.
• Simplicity & reductionism: Reductionist as it uses simple classification systems . David Cannter et al analysed 39 aspects of serail killer murders comitted by 100 US serial killers and found no clear divison between organised and disorganised crime. Douglas later proposed a third category called the ‘mixed’ offender but this lessens the usefulness of ditinct categories.

Question 4

Offender profiling

Answer 4

Offender profiling is a method of working out the characteristics of an offender by examining the characteristics of the crime and the crime scene.
There are two approaches to offender profiling: The top-down approach and the bottom-up approach

Question 5

General Evaluations for offender profiling

Answer 5

• The effectiveness of profiling is difficult to assess because it is never used in isolation.
• Alison et al - Gave 2 groups police officers the same profile, but each group was provided details of 2 very different offenders. In each group 75% rated the profile as somewhat accurate and 50% as generally/very accurate. Argues that the predictions in profiles are ambiguous.
• Snook found that Canadian major crime officers agreed that criminal profiling was helps solve cases (94%) & is a valuable investigative tool (88%).
• All profiling methods suffer from the problem of statistically abnormal offenders, who’s behviour doesn’t match with previous experiecne or what is statistically probable.

Question 6

The Bottom-up Approach

Answer 6

A data-driven approach where statistical techniques are used to produce predictions about the likely characteristics an offender.

Canter suggested two approaches within the bottom-up approach:

Investigative psychology:
A form of bottom-up profiling based on psychological theory.
1) Interpersonal coherence Behaviour/habits in everyday like and in elements of a crime may be correlation & may change overtime.
2) Forensic awareness Certain behaviours (i.e concealing fingerprints) may reveal an awareness of particular police techniques and past experience.
3) Smallest space analysis A statistical techniques using computer databases. Identifies patterns to see if a series of offences are linked.

Geographical Profiling:
Used to make inferences about where an offender is likely to live based on the pattern shown by location or locations of a series of crimes.
Canters circle theory proposed 2 models of offender behaviour:
- marauders (commit crimes close to home)
- Commuters (travel away from home to offend)
A diameter of a circle is created using the distance between the two farthest crimes. The center of the circle is considered the most likely location of the offender’s residence. Creates an area to search.
Criminal geographic targeting (CGT)
An algorithm, which uses geographical co-ordinates of crimes, to produce a 3D probability surface, called a jeopardy surface, that shows the most likely areas where the offender lives.

Question 7

Evaluate the bottom up approach

Answer 7

• Lundrigan & Canter (2001): combined analysis from 120 murder cases & found that the offender’s home base was invariably located in the center of the crime scene pattern. Supports Canter’s claim that spatial info is a key factor in determining the base of an offender.
• Copson surveyed 48 British police forces & found that advice provided by the profiler was judged by be useful in 83% of cases but led to accurate identification of offender in only 3% of cases. Studies into BUA have found mixed results.
• Application to a wide range of offences Smallest space analysis & geographical profiling can be used to investigate crimes such a burglary & theft as well as more serious crimes.
• Scientific and objective as it’s more grounded in evidence & psychological theory than inferences/speculation. Assistance of AI. CA: algorithms sometimes go wrong.
• Canter &Larkin showed that 87% of 45 British sexual assaulters were marauders. Supports the circle hypothesis. CA: it’s difficult to know if a criminal is a marauder or commuter before apprehension. Can be difficult to distinguish offences by separate offender and some offences may not be recorded, reducing it’s application.
• Has led to some wrongful convictions: After new forensic evidence emerged, Robert Napper was convicted of Rachael Nickell’s murder. He was originally ruled out because he was taller than the picture given.
• Canter used profiling to identify John Duffy “the Railway Rapist” (1980s). He used geographical profiling and discovered the killer was a marauder. The profile canter created said he was married with no children and had marraige problems; he was physically small with feelings of unattractiveness and lived in Kilburn or Cricklewood. The offender profiling was found to be accurate as Duffy lived in Kilburn, was married, infertile and seperated from his wife, was 5’4 and had acne.

Question 8

Biological Explanations for offending behaviour: Outline the historical approach

Answer 8

Lombroso, coinciding with Darwin’s theory of evolution, proposed that offenders possessed similar characteristics to lower primates and that this could explain criminality. He called this Atavistic form.
Suggested features of criminals were: asymmetric faces, long jaws, eyes defects, unusual ears more than the usual n.o. of fingers or toes etc.
Empirical evidence: He examined over 50,000 bodies making precise measurements of physiological characteristics. In a study of 383 convicted Italian criminals, he found that 21% had just one atavistic trait and that 43% had at least 5.
Environmental Influences
Lombroso later recognised other explanations for criminality:
- Born criminal: the atavistic type
- Insane criminals: Suffering from mental illness
- Criminaloids: Whose mental characteristics predisposed them to criminality under the right physical/social circumstances.

Somatotypes
Kretschmer proposed that body type could link to criminality: Studied 4,000 criminals. Classified:
- Leptosome: tall & thin - thieves
- Athletic: Violent crimes
- Pyknic: short & fat - deception sometimes violent crimes
- mixed - morality crimes

Question 9

Evaluate the historical approach of offending behavior

Answer 9

• Paradigm shift: Lombroso is considered the founder of modern criminology, as he brought science into the study of crime, previously associated with the devil and religion.
• Lombroso had a large sample size however he had no control group. Goring compared 3,000 convicts with non-convicts & found no differences except from the fact that convicts were slightly smaller.
• Gender bias - He didn’t study women directly and had androcentric ideas believing that women were passive, low in intelligence and maternally focused so were less likely to become criminals. Suggests his explanations are based on typical 19th century views about women rather than empirical evidence.
• Criticised for being scientifical racist as characteristics he identified are more prevalent in certain racial groups (i.e. associating dark skin and curly hair, which are common in African individuals, with criminality perpetuates negative racial stereotypes.) His theories were used to justify eugenics which usually targets minorities.
• Some of Lombroso’s characteristics i.e. twisted, upturned, flat or long beak like nose, aren’t useful as they can be applied to most people.
• Support for somatotypes: Gluek & Gluek - 60% of delinquents were mesomorphs (equivalent to athletic type). William Sheldon studied 200 young adults & found the same.

Question 10

Outline the neural explanation for offending

Answer 10

Considers the how brain structure and neurotransmitter levels may be different in criminals. In generall 8.5% of the US population have an a brain injury compared with 60% in US prisons (Harmon, 2012)
Brain structure:
- Prefrontal cortex: Regulates emotion + controls moral behaviour. Rainecited 71 brain imaging studies showing that murders, psychopaths & violent individuals have reduced functioning in the prefrontal cortex & an 11% reduction in grey matter. Lower activity in this area is associated with impulsivity/loss of control.
Limbic System: Balances emotion & motivation. Raine studied a group of 41 murderers found not guilty by reason of insanity (NGRI). Using PET scans Found abnormal asymmetries in their limbic systems in comparison to matched controls.

Neurotransmitters:
Serotonin: Help regulate emotional impulses. Low serotonin inhibits communications between amygdala (processing center for emotions e.g. pleasure, fear, addictions) and the frontal lobes, making it more difficult for the Prefrontal cortex to control emotional responses to anger, which are generated by the amygdala.
Noradrenaline: High & low levels are linked to criminal behaviour. High levels activate the SNS - fight or flight - linked to aggression/impulsivity. Low levels - lack of fear for consequences (reduces reaction to perceived threats)
Dopamine – Linked with pleasure/rewarding feelings and a desire to repeat certain behaviours. This is why dopamine has been linked to addiction and substance abuse, and therefore through this it has an indirect link to criminal behaviour.

Question 11

Evaluate neural explanations for offending behaviour

Answer 11

Strengths:
- Research support: Raine use of PET scans = scientific empirical evidence but doesn’t establish cause & effect.
- Buitelaar (2003) found that juvenile delinquents given dopamine antagonists which reduce levels of dopamine, showed a decrease in aggressive behaviour.
- Cause or effect: Difficulty establishing whether abnormalities in the brain or low neurotranmitter levels cause crime, the result of it, or just an intervening variable. (I.e. a head injuries may be a result of a violent childhood). Research only shows a correlation.
- Real life Applications: potential for treatments (i.e.prisoners could be given diets that would enhance their serotonin levels, ingredients in artificial sweetners make serotonin production difficult).
- Over-simplified? The links between abnormal levels of a certain neurotransmitter and offending behaviour, often centre around violent and aggressive behaviour, which does not explain all types of crime i.e fruad.
- Biologically deterministic: Challenges whether the criminal can be held responsible.
- Reductionist:Ignores external factors like parenting, culture, and social learning.

Question 12

Outline the genetic explanations for offending behaviour

Answer 12

Proposes that certain genes predispose individuals to criminals behaviour.

MAOA gene: controls dopamine & serotonin & is linked with agression.
CDH13 genes - A deficiency results in behavioural altercations such as addiction & associated symptoms with ADHD.

Question 13

Evaluate the genetic explanation for criminal behaviour

Answer 13

Research support:
- Tiihonen studied 900 offendes & found that those with abnormalities on both the MAOA & CDH13 genes, were 13X more likely to have a history of violent behaviour than those without it. They estimated that 5-10% of all violent crime in Finland is due to abnormalities in MAOA & CDH13 genes. Recent research so reliaility is yet to be established.
Family Sudies: Brunner DNA analysis on 28 male members of a Dutch family, who had histories of impulsive & violent criminal behaviours. Found that they shared a defect in the MADA gene and had lower than average IQs. Concluded criminal behaviour is inherited.
Twin Studies: Christianson studied 3586 twin pairs in denmark. Found that male identical twins had 35%concordancefor criminality. Whereas male non-identical twins had only a 12% concordance rate. Female monozygotic twins had a 21% concordance rate for criminality.
Adoption Studies: Crowe: Studied a group of adopted children & looked at the likelihood that if the mother had a criminal record, so would the adoptee by 8 years old. F: Experimental mother (criminal record) = 50% of the adopted children had a criminal record. Control mother (no criminal record) = 5% of the adopted children had a criminal record.

Alternative explanation: Diathesis-stress
suggests thata combination of genetic predisposition and environmental stress can lead to criminal behavior. epigenetics - genes are ‘switched on’ or off by epigenomes, which are affected by environmental factors. Caspi followed about 1,000 ppl from babies. He assessed anti-social behaviour at the age of 26. Found 12% of those men with low MAOA genes had experienced maltreatment when they were babies but were responsible for 44% of violent convictions. Suggesting environment has an influebce on criminal behaviour.

• Biological explanations foucs on agressive/violent crimes, rather than non violent crimes such as theft, fraud etc which are more dfficult to link to biological explanations.
• The genetic explanation can be reductionist, ignoring other factors that may influence offending behavior.It can also have negative social implications, such as making it unethical to punish people for crimes they were biologically predetermined to commit.

Question 14

Describe Eysenck’s theory for offending

Answer 14

Suggested that both psychological and biological components are involved in offending behaviour. Personality traits are genetic and adult personality is a product of the traits and learning experiences through life. He suggests that personality traits are 67% biologically based and believed that character traits tend to cukster along three dimnsions:

• Extraversion - Introversion : extraverts are characterised as outgoing, having positive emotions but may get bored easily.
• Neuroticism - stability : neuroticism is the tendency to experience negative emotional states (such as anger, anxiety and depression) rather than positive emotional states.
• psychotocism - normality (added later): Psychotics are egocentric, aggressive, impulsive, impersonal, lacking in empathy and generally not concerned about the welfare of other people.

Esyneck believes that the typical criminal is the neurotic-extravert; leading to unstable, unpredictable behaviours. Later added psychiticism.
he devised the Esyneck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) which assesses and individual’s personality.

The role of socialisation:
Eysenck saw that criminal behaviour is immature and selfish, concerned with immediate gratification. The process of socialisation is when children are taught to become more able to delay gratification and more socially oriented through operant & classical conditioning .Eysenck believed that those with high E and N scores had nervous systems that made them difficult to condition, so they would not learn easily to respond to antisocial impulses with anxiety. They would be more likely to act antisocially in situations where the opportunity presented itself. Links innate personality (biologically determined) with environmental interaction.

Question 15

Explain the biological basis of Eysenck’s theory

Answer 15

Extraversion: determined by the level of arousal in a person’s nervous system. An extraverted person is under-aroused & requires more stimulation. Therefore, they seek external stimulation to increase their cortical (brain) arousal. Introvertes are innately over-aroused and thus seek to reduce/avoid stimulation.

Neuroticism: Determined by the level of stability in the Sympathetic Nervous System - responses to threat (fightorflight). A neurotic person is highly unstable and reacts/gets upset easily.

Psychotisism: Related to high levels of testosterone.

Question 16

Evaluate Eysenck’s explanation for offending behaviour

Answer 16

• Randy Buckner found that introverts have thicker grey matter in their prefrontal cortex (linked to thinking & decision making) than extroverts do. Suggests that introverts are more thoughtful &would make better decision.
• Eysenck & Eysenck compared 2070 male prisoners on the EPI , with controls. Prisoners recorded higher scores than controls for psychoticism, extraversion, & neuroticism. Farrington meta-analysis of 16 studies into Eysenck’s personality theory & the links to criminality. Found a consistent link between high scores of psychoticism but not the same link with extraversion & neuroticism. Found little evidence for consistent differences in EEG measures (used to measure cortical arousal) between introverts & extroverts, challenging the physiological bases of Eysenck’s theory.
• Cultural bias – Holanchock (1979) studied Hispanic and African-American offenders and found that many of the offenders were less extravert than a non-criminal control group. This would imply that Eysenck’s theory is not generalisable to other cultures.
• Unclear relationship between all 3 traits and offending behaviour which may be dependent on the type of crime. doesn’t establish cause & effect.
• Lacks explanatory power: Eysenck highlights personality traits linked wit offending behaviour but not why they commit the crimes they do, which limits rehabilitation applications.
• Reductionist - Reduces personality to a ‘score’, but personality is complex & fluid.
• Elements of biological determinism.

Question 17

Outline Cognitive distortions as an explanation for offending behavior

Answer 17

Cognitive distortion is thinking that has a bias, such as that what is perceived by a person does not match reality.
Examples of CD:
Hostile Attribution bias: When a person automatically attributes malicious intentions to another.
Minimalisation: Underplaying the consequence of an action to reduce negative emotions such as feeling guilty.

Evidence link CD with violent behaviour.

Question 18

Evaluate Cognitive distortions as an explanation for offending behavior

Answer 18

• Schonenberg & Aiste (2014) - showed emotionally ambiguous faces to 55 violent offenders & compared their responses to control non-offender pps. F: Violent offenders were significantly more likely to perceive the faces as angry & hostile.
• Dodge & Frame: showed children a video clip of ambiguous, provocative situations in which the behaviour was neither hostile nor random. Before the study, the children who were classified as aggressive perceived the video clip as more aggressive overall than those who were classified as nonaggressive. Suggests cognitive bias’s stem from childhood & that individuals feel like they can justify being ant-social or committing offences because they feel victimised or outcasts anyway.
• Real world application - Heller et al used CBT to reduce cognitive distortions. PPs who attended 13 one-hour sessions had a 44% reduction in arrests compared to control. CBT may be effective for rehabilitation & is the most used treatment for sex offenders.
• Research support for minimalisation: Barbaree from 26 incarcerated rapists: 54% denied committing an offence at all. 40% minimised the harm to the victim. Pollock & Hashmall: 35% of a sample of child molesters described their crime as non-sexual. 36% state the victim had consented.
• Counterpoints: Strong focus o violent offenders & sexual offenders doesn’t explain all types of crime.

Question 19

Outline Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning

Answer 19

Kohlberg interviewed boys & men about the reasons for their moral decisions and constructed a stage theory of moral development:

Level 1:
Pre-Conventional morality - egocentric view, the level most criminals are classified.
Stage 1: Obedience & punishment: behaviours driven by avoiding punishment & gaining rewards. Less mature, more child-like reasoning.
Stage 2: Individual interest: Behaviour driven by self interests & rewards.

Level 2:
Conventional morality
Stage 3: interpersonal - behaviour driven by social influence
Stage 4: Authority - behaviour driven by obeying authority & conforming to social order.

Level 3:
Post-Conventional morality
Stage 5: Social contracts - behaviour driven by balance of social order & individual rights.
Stage 6: Universal ethics - behaviour driven by internal moral principles.

Criminals are likely to be at the pre-conventional level (Hollin et al)

Question 20

Evaluate Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning

Answer 20

• Gudjonsson & Sigurdson - studied 128 male juvenile offenders. F: 38% did not consider the consequences of their actions & 36% were confident they would not be caught. Suggests they were in Kohlberg’s pre-conventional stage.
• Chen & Howitt - Assessed 330 male adolescents (12-18). Offenders who showed more advanced moral reasoning were less likely to be involved in violent crimes.
• Gender Bias: Kohlberg’s sample was American men & he used male-orientated principles, which he argued were universal (beta-bias). When he studies females with the same principles he concluded that they were less morally developed than men (alpha bias). Gilligan argued that females take a care orientated approach towards morality, whereas males take a justice approach.
• Real world Applications: Kohlberg observed that children raised in Israeli Kibbutzim were morally more advanced that those not raised on Kibbutzim & used this to set up a number of cluster schools (‘communities’) in a number of schools and a prison. Member has the power to define and resolve disputes within the group, encouraging moral development.

Question 21

Outline differential association theory as an explanation for offending behaviour

Answer 21

• Sutherland suggested that offending behaviour can be explained in terms of social learning. Interactions with others lead to the formation of attitudes about crime (which may be more or less favourable), as well as acquiring specific knowledge about how to commit crimes.
• Individuals learn attitudes (i.e pro-crime), values (i.e. deviant behaviours), techniques (i.e. fighting) and motivations from interactions with those around them.
• Attitudes & behaviours are learnt from Intimate personal groups such as family & peers, and/or local community.
• Sutherland suggested that the frequency, length and personal meaning of such social associations will determine the degree of influence.
• Learning is likely to occur through direct & indirect operant conditioning

Question 22

Evaluate differential association theory as an explanation for offending behaviour

Answer 22

• Research support: Farrington studied delinquent development using a longitudinal studies on 411 males from 8yrs-50yrs, from working-class deprives inner-city South London. Data gained from officially recorded convictions & self-reports. F: Key predictors of crime at age 8-10 = family criminality, daring/risk taking, low school attainment, poverty & poor parenting. 41% convicted of at least 1 offence between 10-50yrs. CP: Gender & culture bias. Doesn’t explain the 59% who didn’t offend.
• High concordance validity - Osborn & West: 13% of the sons of the non criminal fathers had criminal convictions, compared with 40% of the sons of criminal fathers. that criminality appears to run in families however findings can also be explained in terms of genetics.
• Major contribution: shift from blaming individuals to social factors. Learning environments can be changed, whereas genes cannot. School used to educate on anti-crime values & promotes rehabilitation.
• Scially Sensitive: Encourages prejudices & stereotyping against ppls from high crime, working class areas or with a family history of crime. Different treatment based on stereotypes may create a self-fulfilling prophecy, encouraging crime.
• Challenges prison system: DA would suggest that prisons are not the best place for young offenders as it surround them with delinquent peers encouraging re-offending. Supported by statistics Over time, the UK overall reoffending rate has fluctuated between 23% and 32%.
• The role of Biological Factors: diathesis stress & niche picking.

Question 23

Outline the psychodynamic explanation for offending: The superego

Answer 23

Blackburn proposed that when conflict in the phallic stage is not resoved, the superego doesn’t develop properly and he suggested that parents have the biggest impact on the development of the child’s supergeo:
Weak/underdeveloped super-ego: An absent or weak same-gender parent means that there is nobody to identify with & therefore results in an underdeveloped super-ego (Females all fall into this). Results in immoral or unctonrolled violent urges & Impulsivity.
Harsh/Overdeveloped Super-egeo: An overly strict parent will lead to excessive feelings of guilt, racked with anxiety & rigid moral values. They feel the need to be punished. Could lead to someone committing crimes in order to seek punishment & relieve guilt.
Deviant super-ego: If the same-sex parent is a criminal then the child who identifies with their parent will adopt the same devaint superego. Results in lack of guilt or consequence normally associated with crime.

Question 24

Outline the psychodynamic approach for offending: Maternal deprivation

Answer 24

Bowlby proposed that prolonged seperation between a mother and a child with no substitute primary carer would have long-term emotional consequences including affectionless psychopathy.
Affectionless psychopathy: A behaviour disorder in which the individual has no ability to experience shame or guilt and lacks a social conscience. This means that they may find it ‘easier’ to commit crimes. Characteristics: lack of affection for others, lack guilt, don’t fear consequences for action, lower IQ, lack of empathy, impulsive, lack of care for others.

44 Juvenille Thieves Study:
Interviews with thieves & families: 14/44 = affectionless psychopaths - 12 of this 14 experienced maternal deprivation. In a non-criminal group, only 2 had experienced early seperation.

Question 25

Evaluate the psychodynamic explanation for offending

Answer 25

- Gender Bias in Freud's theory: Freud proposed that women should develop weaker super-egos than men because they don't identify as strongly with the same-sex parents as boys do, believing there was little reason for anyone to identify with a woman because of her lower status. If Freud's views were correct we would expect to see more women criminals as men, however this is not the case. Alpha Bias. - Socially Sensitive - Towards single-sex parents & same-sex (homosexuals), highlighting minority groups & encouraging discrimination with very little scientific evidence to support that these groups make less effective parents. - Contradictory evidence - little evidence that children raised without same sex parents are less law abiding. Deviant super-ego could be explained in terms of genetics. Overdevelop super-ego lacks face validity as most offenders try to conceal their crimes. - Links with other theories: Moral reasoning, social learning, approaches, cognitive distortions, which adds reliability. Addresses emotion. - Methodological issues with Bowlby's study - Researcher bias as he carried out the interviews. Failed to distinguish between deprivation and privation. Correlatin but not causation as seperation was not manipulated and thus other factors may have resulted in affectionless psychopathy. Lewis (1954) analysed data from interviews with 500 young offenders and found that maternal deprivation was a poor predictor of crime. - Real-world application - importance of reducing early seperation - **Farrington et al** longitudinal study concluded that the most important risk factors at age 8-10 for late offending were: Family history of criminality (could be genetics and/or differential association); daring or risk taking activities (Eysenck's Thoery); low school attainment; poverty; poor parenting (they psychodynamic approach) - suggests psychodynamic approach has a contribution.

Question 26

Recidivism

Answer 26

Recedivism is the tendency of a convicted criminal to repeat a crime or reoffend after already recieving punishment or serving their sentence. The ministry of Justice (2023) reported a **27%** overall re-offending rate, with **57%** of adults released from custodial sentences of less than 12 months reoffending. Reoffending costs the economy at least **£9.5 billion** per year so research on custodial sentencing is important.

Question 27

The aims of custodial sentencing

Answer 27

**Incapacitation**: The offender is taken out of society to prevent them re-offending as a means of protecting the public. **Deterence**: The unpleasant prison experience is designed to put off the individual (or society at large) from engaging in offending behaviour. **General deterence** - broad message to society that crime will not be tolerated. **Individual deterence** - Experience of punishment discourages individuals from reoffending. Involves vicarious reinforcement (social learning) and conditioning through punishment. **Retribution**: Society is enacting revenge for the crime by making the offender suffer, and the level of suffering should be proportionate to the seriousness of the crime. Victims and their friends/family feel justice has been served. **Rehabilitation**: Prisons should provide opportunities to develop skills & training or to access treatment programmes for drug addictions as well as given a chance to reflect on their crime. Upon release prisoners should leave better adjusted & ready to take their place back in society.

Question 28

Psychological Effects of custodial sentencing

Answer 28

1. **De-Individuation**: A loss of personal identity when the person becomes part of a whole rather than an individual. Encourages conformity and may cause mental health problems. 2. **Over-crowding & Lack of Privacy**: The growing UK prison population has not been macthed by a increase in the number of prisons and 22.7% are overcrowded,  according to GOV.UK. (2024). **Calhoun's mice utopia** study shows that overcrowding leads to increased agression, hyperexuality, stress and increased physical illness, which if applied to humans would mean prisons are counter productive. 3. **Depression, self harm and suicide**: Prison can cause feelings of hopelessness and a loss of control. Inmates may conform to self-harm. 4. **Effects on family**: Financial, guilt, resentment, seperation & attachment disorder.

Question 29

Evaluate the effectiveness of custodial sentencing

Answer 29

- Recidivism rates: The high rates of revidivism suggests that the punishment doesn't work. Adults who served sentences of less than 12 months re-offended at a rate of 59.8%, compared to 33.9% for those who served sentences of 12 months or more. For the same period, the reoffending rate for juveniles was 67.1%. Over longer periods, the recidivism rate is around 57%. to beahviourist principles punishment is most effective when it occurs immediately, which isn't the case for custodial sentecning. Offenders are usually sentenced after being caught rather then after offending so what is being taught is not to get caught - counter-productive. - Not effective deterent: The severity of punishment isn't necesiarily a deterent - in US statistics show that murder rates are not lower in death penalty states. Crime's often commited when in high emotional conditions, when people likely do not pause to consider the negative consequences. - Successful at incapacitation as prisoners are isolated from society, however this is a limited benefit because it is only relevant to a small range of dangerous prisoners and doesn't reduce recidivism. Prison may force or ecnourage rehabiliation (i.e. drug addicts may struggle to access drugs in prison), however offenders cannot be forced to take part in rehabilitation programmes and if they do it may be superficial to reduce their sentence. Does achieve retribution, however this could also be achieved in other ways - i.e. restorative justice. - Sutherland's Differential Association theory would suggest that prisons are counter-productive by providing opportunities for learning criminal techniques and reinforcing pro-criminal attitudes. Could explain high recidivism rates. Therefore alternatives such as probation, compensatory penalties, electronic monitoring and fines may be better for new ot non-violent offenders. - The Norway prison system is considered the most humane in the world with much lower conformity rates that UK prisons. They value noramlity, progression & dynamic security with only 20% recidivism rate. High recidivism rates in the UK are detrimental to the economy, reoffending costs at least 9.3 billion a year, suggesting adopting Noway's system would be effective. However the UK has less space and a larger population raising the issue of practicality. - Free will vs determinism: Biological and environmental explanations for offending suggests that it is determiend. This would raise ethical issues with prisons as individuals are being punished for beahviour out of their control. Other explanations support free will and suggest punishment is adequate/fair.

Question 30

Token economy

Answer 30

- Token economy is a form of therapy where desirable behaviours are encouraged by the use of **selective reinforcement**. Rewards (tokens) are used as secondary reinforcers when individuals engage in correct/socially dessirable behaviours. The tokens can then be exchanged for primary reinforcers - food or privileges. The association of tokens & rewards for good behaviours = classical conditioning. - It is a type of **behavioural modification**: A theraputic technique used to increase or decrease the frequencies of behaviour using operant condition. - There is a clear structure decided in advance (heirarchy of behaviours) and consitency in the way tokens are given out. - Punishment (removal of tokens) can also be used. - Shaping: Tokens are given for behaviours that become progressively more complex.

Question 31

Key Study: Hobbs and Holt (1976)

Answer 31

A: To reduce inappropriate social behaviour before and after dinner and when lining up. P: Staff were trained. 125 delinquent males (aged 12-15yrs) were observed - 1 control group, 3 TEPs (token ecomonmy programme) groups. Boys were told the target criteria and once a week could use their earned tokens to buy drinks, sweets, toys, and cigarettes from as store or could save them for off-campus activities/visits home. F: Mean percentages for social behaviours increased post-tokens on average **27%**. The control group showed no increase in the same time period. C: Token economy helps reduce inappropriate social behaviour in delinquent males ages 12-15yrs.

Question 32

Evaluate token ecenomy as a method for dealing with offending behaviour

Answer 32

- **Short term effectiveness**: Relies heavily on extrinsic motivation, which may not be consistently present in daily life outside of prison. There is little evidence that the effects are permanent and continue following release from prison. This limits the validity of the approach to token economy as a method for reducing recidivism. - The method is **easy to implement** as it doesn't require trained psychologists to identify & reward desirable behvaiours and still provides a means of controlling unmanageable behaviour. It is a cost-effective approach. - **Individual differences**: programmes with young offenders have been reasonably successful (Hobbs & Holt), however they are less effective for adults & violent offenders. **Rice** et al studied 92 men in Canadian max. security psychiatric hospital in TEPs. They had a behaviour change but it was not consistent in the real world - **50%** reoffended. - **Ethical issues**: Arguably a violated of human rights as individuals' behaviour is being manipulated, not always with their agreements. Objections remain about basic needs (such as food or visiting rights) being conditioned on good behaviour, which some prisoners cannot control. Punnishment (removal of tokens) counters the aims of rehibilitation. - **Too Simplistic**: Criminal behaviour is complex with no clear explanation: differential association, biological, cognitive etc. Token economy only focuses on good behaviour and not the cause of bad behaviours, therefore underlying psychological problems are not identify and dealt with and once released from prison undesirable behaviours may resurface.

Question 33

Outline Anger management as a method for dealing with offending beahviour

Answer 33

Anger management is a form of cognitive behavioural therapy specific to changing the way a person responds to anger and agression by changing the way they percieve it. Key aims (Novaco): - Cognitive reconstruction - greater self-awareness and control over cognitive dimensions of anger. - Regulation of arousal - learning to control the physiological state. - Behavioural strategies - such as problem solving skills, strategic withdrawal and assertiveness. Short term aims: safer & more manageable, prevents 'anger factories', reduces hostility & 'hostile attribution bias. Long term aims: Increases success of rehabilitation, reduces likelihood of recidivism. Stages of anger management (Stress inoculation model - Novaco): 1. **Cognitive preperation**: Source of anger for an individual is found through interviews or group sessions. Individual tells their story and triggers are identified. This allows stimuli ti be reconceptualised (thought about differently) & identify the irrational thinking around it. 2. **Skill aquisition**: Different stratergies are taught to help manage anger i.e. self-regulation, cognitive flexibility, relaxation & communication skills. 3. **Application Practice**: Practicing skills in non-threatening situations , such as role plays, from previous trigger scenarios allowing feedback to be given from the group and the therapist. This will then be used within the real world. This will only work when it is 'real' for the offender & if reinforeced positively.

Question 34

Ireland et al (2004)

Answer 34

Assessed 50 young male prisoners on anger management course a control group of 37 prisoners were placed on a waiting list. 2 weeks before & 8 weeks after intervention, prisoners completed a self-report anger questionnaire & were assessed by officers on a checklist addressing angry behaviour. Treatment = 12 one-hour sessions over 3 days. Found a significant improvements in management of their anger in the experimental group and no changes in the control group. Limitation: Offenders may have had an incentive to lie about their anger management to look good on parole & reduce restriction - weakens/invalidates evidence.

Question 35

Evaluation of anger management

Answer 35

Strengths: - Research support: **Ireland, 2004**. **Trimble** found that an anger management programme with 105 offenders on probation significantly reduced the expression/experience of anger by young offenders compared to their pre-treatment scores. **Landenberger & Lipsey**, 2005, analysed 58 studies using CBT with offenders, 20 of which used anger control as part of the therapy & they found this element significantly related to improvement. - **Novaco** found **75%** improvement rates based on 6 meta-analysis into anger managment therapy. Limitations: - **Howells** cite 5 meta-analytic studies which showed only moderate benefits of anger management programmes & **Law** reported a study where only 1 person improved. - Individuals have to be able to communicate thoughts, which doesn't work for everyone. - **Expensive** due to requiring trained specialists CP: may be cost-effective in long term if it reduced recidivism rates. - Assumption is made that anger and violence/crime is linked, which may not always be the case. May be harmful as offenders can attribute their violent behaviour to anger rather than taking personal responsibility.

Question 36

Evaluations for the effects of custodial sentencing

Answer 36

- According to the UK government¹, over **50%** of prisoners suffer from common mental health disorders such as stress and depression.  - Recently, a study by the Prison Reform Trust (2012) showed that **25%** of female prisoners and **15%** of male prisoners reported psychosis, suggesting that prison can cause psychological disorders. - According to **Bartol** (1995), prison can be brutal, humiliating, and devastating, leading to profound psychological effects. Evidence of this is the increase in suicides among prison inmates, whose rate is about **15 times** higher than that of the general population. - Davies and Raymond (2000) found officials exaggerate the impact of prisons to make it appear they are ‘tough on crime’. Their review found prisons do little to rehabilitate prisoners or deter others - Rehabilitative value: Research has found that many inmates access education while in prison, which increases chance of employment after release. **Shirley** (2029) reported that offenders who take part in college programmes are **43%** less likely to re-offend following release. - The importation model (Irwin & Cressey) argues that many convicts have pre-existing psychological and emotional difficulties which they bring into prison. so it is difficult to seperate the impact of the prison and pre-existing conditions. Suggesting confounding varaibles influencing prisons and their psychological effects.

Question 37

Define custodial sentencing

Answer 37

A custodial sentence is a court-ordered period of time spent in prison or another institution as punishment for a serious crime.

Question 38

Restorative justice

Answer 38

A method of reducing and atoning for offending behaviour through reconciliation between offender and victim, as well as the wider community.

Question 39

What are the aims of restorative justice?

Answer 39

- **Rehabilitation of offenders**: Offenders can see the real impact of their crime on the vicitm and is encouraged to take responsibility. Is and active rather than passive process. - **Atonement for wrongdoing**: The victim has the opportunity to express their distress, and this provides the offender with a chance of developing empathy by taking the perspective of the offender. 'atonement' is psychological by showing their feelings of guilt. - **Victim's perspective**: Gives the victim a voice so that they no longer feel powerless. May develop a greater understanding of the offender by listening to their account which, in turn, reduces the victim's sense of being harmed.

Question 40

Restorative justice techniques

Answer 40

- **Direct mediation**: A meeting between the offender & the victim, but accompanied by a trained mediator to help manage their discussions & offer support. - **Indirect mediation**: The offender & victim do not meet face-to-face, but their communication is passed to each other via a mediation (e.g. letters).

Question 41

Restorative justice programmes evaluation

Answer 41

- Government funded research suggests high victim satisfaction rate (**85%**). - **Sherman & Strang** (2007) reviewed 20 studies involving 142 men convicted of violence & property offences, who had taken part in restorative justice programmes, only **11%** reoddended, compared to 37% of a matched control group. - Cost: Requires a trained mediator and there are high drop out rates which costs money. **Shapland** concluded that every £1 spent on restorative justice would save the government £8 through reduced re-offending. - Feminist critique - women's AId have called for a ban on the use of Restorative justice programmes in cases of domestic abuse, as they believe it is inapproproate. - Soft option - Public opinion may be against restorative justice, as it may be seen as 'getting off lightly'. This may discourage victims taking part - psychological harm may be brought to the victim especially if the criminal shows no empathy towards them which may result in a lowered self esteem additionally, the offender may be harmed, the victims may gang up on the offender which is especially dangerous if the offender is a child. victims may attempt to shame the offender which is not the aim of the process.