Topic 7: Working Memory (WM)

Question 1

Short term memory

Answer 1

Short term memory is the second stage of the multi-store model proposed by Atkinson and Shriffin.

• STM has the capacity to holding a very small amount of information in mind for a short period of time.
• It has limited capacity as it can only store about 7 items at a time (Miller’s law 7 plus/minus 2).
• The duration is limited, as storage is very fragile and information can be lost with distraction or passage from time.
• The STM is encoding primarily acouistic and even translating visual information into sounds. However, it is important to distinguish STM from working memory, as STM can hold a small amount of information, WM can store and manipulate information, our WM is helpful in performing complex tasks.

Question 2

Memory span

Answer 2

• Memory span refers to how many items (usually words or numbers) an individual can retain and recall. The memory span is a test of the functioning of our working memory.
• This is usually measured using the digit span test; where the maximum number of sequentially presented items digits that can reliably be recalled in the correct order.

1) In the digit span test, the individual will see a series of digits presented on a screen, they will be asked to remember these numbers in sequence.
2) After a short period of time, the digits disappear from the screen, and then an empty box will appear on the screen and the individual will be asked to type in the number sequence they were just exposed to. This test measures verbal working memory ability.

Question 3

The multi component model

Answer 3

Proposed by Baddley & Hitch (1974), a model to explain working memory. The model have three (a fourth was added later) components:

• The phonological loop: holds sequences of acoustic or speech-based items.
• The visuo-spatial sketchpad: Holds sequences of visually and/or spatial items.
• The central executive: Works as the controller for the whole system, who allocate the resources.
• The episodic buffer (added later):

Question 4

The phonological loop

Answer 4

• Temporary store and a verbal rehearsal process
• Works with storying auditory stimuli.
• Acts as an inner ear and holds information in speech-based form (spoken-words) for 1-2 seconds.
• 2 sub-categories: the short-term store and the articulatory rehearsal.
• Short-term store= information fades quickly. (inner ear) – Linked to speech perception. Holds information in a speech-based form (i.e., spoken words) for 1-2 seconds.
• Articulatory (inner voice) rehearsal= helps maintain information over a longer period of time. Linked to speech production. Written words must first be converted into an articulatory (Spoken) code before they can enter the phonological store.

Example: in class we use our phonological loop to repeat what the professor said, before we write it down in our notes.

applied: ppl who have acquired a phonological loop deficit in adulthood would experience few difficulties as they have already mastered their native language- however they will have problems learning a new one.

Question 5

Imagery and the visuo-spatial sketchpad

Answer 5

• Works with visual and spatial information and is therefore referred to as the inner eye. Visual information refers to what things looks like
• As we move around, our position in relation to objects is constantly changing and it is important that we can update this information, the sketchpad helps us navigate this.
• Visuo-spatial sketchpad also display and manipulates visual and spatial information held in LTM (e.g. the spatial layout of your house is held in the LTM).

Imagery:
- Visual imagery is one of the functions usually ascribed to the sketchpad. People vary in the extent to which they report having visual imagery. Research shows that ppl with visual imagery do not have better memory (more likely to have errors in their memories).

Question 6

The central executive

Answer 6

The big boss of the multi-component model.

• It directs attention and coordinates activity between all the different components.
• It is pretty much the resource allocator of our working memory

Norman & Shallice assumed 2 modes of control:

1) Automatic (based on habits)
2) and attentionally limited executive –> supervisory attentional system (SAS) was crucial to the central executive.

Example: when a conflict resolution os not possible, or when a novel situation arises, e.g. when a road is closed, the SAS system is called into action. This is able to intervene either in favour of one or other of the competing options, or else to activate strategies for seeking alternative solutions.

Question 7

The episodic buffer

Answer 7

The episodic buffer is a storage system that can hold about four chunks of information in a multidimensional code. Because of its capacity for holding a range of dimensions, it is capable of acting as a link between the various subsystems of WM, and also of connecting these subsystems with input from LTM and rom perception.

• Information was retrieved from the episodic buffer through conscious awareness.
• Connects working memory to Long-term memory systems.

Question 8

Individual differences in working memory

Answer 8

Method in testing individual differences:

• WM span task.
• High-span participants have been found to be better at prose composition, obeying complex instructions, taking notes, logic, reasoning, and intelligence.
• Children with special educational needs perform poorely overal on the span tasks.
• Scores on specific subtests can be informative: e.g. delayed reading is associated with poor performance on both phonological STM and complex span tasks.
• A good number of the children with poor working memory have ADHD. This suggests that attention deficits might be linked to working memory performance.
• Due to the evidence of individual differences, pedagogical programs have been introduced to enable teachers to identify children with problems based on WM limitations, so they can modify their teaching for these children.

Question 9

Working memory and aging

Answer 9

• It is suggested that working memory tend to decline with age, and although this is true, the decline is small.
• Suggested that the decline is a result of building up of interference from earlier sequences, reflecting a problem with inhibiting irrelevant material rather than one of combining storage and processing. —> Major cognitive effect of aging is the reduced capacity to inhibit irrelevant stimuli.
• Delcline in performances in skills that involve intense concentration, such as for example chess. (dues to difficulties keeping track of multiple sources of information).
• Studies suggests that aging impairs the capacity to dicide attention between two sources (Central executive–> SAS).