Topic 7: Research Methods Flashcards
Define a research question.
A research question is your idea of what you want to test.
Define an aim.
A statement of what the researcher intends to investigate; describing the purpose of the study.
Define a hypothesis.
A testable prediction of what you will find in the study; the relationship between the variables being investigated.
Define a directional/one-tailed hypothesis.
A hypothesis which states the direction of the difference/relationship being investigated.
Define a non-directional/two-tailed hypothesis.
A hypothesis which does not state the definition of the difference/relationship being investigated.
Is this an aim or hypothesis?
‘To investigate whether drinking energy drinks makes people more talkative.’
This is an aim.
Is this a directional or non-directional hypothesis?
‘It is predicted that people who drink Red Bull will be more talkative than people who drink water.’
This is a directional /one-tailed hypothesis.
Under which circumstances would you choose a directional hypothesis?
When investigating a topic where there is previous research suggesting what will happen.
Under which circumstances would you choose a non-directional hypothesis?
When there is no research or contradictory research into the topic being investigated.
Define variables.
Variables are the factors in a study/investigation which can change. They are used to determine if changes in one thing result in changes to another.
Define an independent variable.
An independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the researcher (or changes naturally) so the effect on the dependent variable can be measured.
Define a dependent variable.
A dependent variable is the variable being measured by the researcher. Any effect should be caused by the change in the independent variable.
What are the levels of the IV?
They are the two different conditions of the independent variable - how it changes so the researcher can make a comparison.
Define operationalisation of variables.
Operationalisation of variables is when you define variables so they can be measured - narrowing down a broad concept so it can be tested.
What are the independent and dependent variables in this hypothesis?
‘People are more aggressive on hot days.’
IV = temperature
DV = aggression
Define paradigm.
A paradigm is a set of assumptions and methods within a discipline that are shared by all the researchers in that discipline.
What did Thomas Kuhn say about paradigms?
He said that a paradigm distinguishes scientific disciplines from non-scientific disciplines (only sciences have paradigms). Kuhn argued that psychology doesn’t have a paradigm because there are different theoretical perspectives with different approaches to investigation within psychology.
Define objectivity.
Objectivity is when researchers don’t let their biases affect their experiments.
Which type of experiment is considered the most objective and why?
Lab experiments are considered the most objective because the researcher has a lot of control over the experimental conditions.
Define empiricism.
Empiricism is the idea that research should be conducted using direct experience.
What is replicability?
An experiment must be shown as repeatable across various contexts/circumstances.
What is reliability?
Reliability is when various different research methods get the same results every time.
What is validity?
Validity is the extent to which an observed effect is genuine. It shows how specific and effective the research is for the hypothesis.
What is generalisability?
When your research can apply to every situation, making the hypothesis more accurate and able to be generalised to everyone.
What is a theory?
A theory is a set of general laws used to explain specific behaviours.
How are theories constructed?
Through gathering evidence e.g. from lab experiments, observations and conversations.
What is falsifiability?
A theory cannot be scientific unless it allows itself to be proven untrue.
What did Karl Popper draw a line between?
Good science, in which theories are constantly being challenged, and pseudoscience - theories which can’t be proven wrong.
What is an alternative hypothesis always accompanied by?
A null hypothesis.
What is an extraneous variable?
Any variable besides the IV that can change the DV. They don’t vary systematically with the IV and so don’t change the study’s findings completely if not controlled.
What is a confounding variable?
A variable which can change the DV that does vary systematically with the DV, essentially creating a second IV.
Why are confounding variables a problem?
The researcher can’t tell whether the IV or the confounding variable caused the change in the DV.
What are demand characteristics?
When clues from the research situation can help the participant to guess the aims of the experiment, leading to the participant changing their behaviour accordingly.
What are the two effects that can come from demand characteristics?
Please U effect - when the participant tries to do what they think the researcher wants
Screw U effect - when the participant does the opposite to try and sabotage the results
Why are demand characteristics a problem?
The participants’ behaviour is no longer natural, which affects the validity of the results.
What are investigator effects?
Unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome - either through influence on the participants or on the design of the study e.g. selection of the sample.
What two effects come from investigator effects?
Expectancy effects, which can lead to:
Unconscious cues given to participants.
Why are investigator effects a problem?
The study is no longer objective and unconscious cues given to participants can encourage them to change their behaviour, affecting the validity of the results.
What is randomisation?
The use of chance to reduce the researcher’s influence on the design of the investigation.
What is standardisation?
Making sure all participants have the same experience, environment and information by using a list of exactly what will happen in the study and a list of standardised instructions which is read to all participants.
Define target population.
The group of people the researcher wants to study.
Define sample.
A smaller group of people taken from the target population. The sample should be representative of the target population so the results can be more easily generalised.
Give a strength of random sampling.
This method is free from researcher bias as the researcher has no influence over who is selected, preventing them from selecting those they believe will support their hypothesis. This improves the validity of the results.
What is random sampling?
When all members of the target population have an equal chance of selection. The researcher uses a list of all members of the target population to select participants through a lottery method.
Give two weaknesses of random sampling.
- There is no guarantee that because everyone has an equal chance of being chosen the sample will be more representative. This means the results may not be generalisable.
- A complete list of the target population may be difficult to obtain.
What is opportunity sampling?
When the researcher asks anyone around at the time of the study, so anyone willing and available is selected.
Give a strength of opportunity sampling.
It’s convenient and saves the researcher time and money.
Give four weaknesses of opportunity sampling.
- This method doesn’t represent the target population as it is drawn from a specific area. This means the results can’t be generalised and are less reliable.
- The researcher has complete control over the choice of participants and could be biased in their selection. This means the results are less valid and reliable.
- The researcher is more likely to have a sample of psychology students (particularly if the study takes place at a university) who are more likely to guess the aims of the study. This affects the replicability of the study. as different results could be obtained with participants who are not psychology students.
- Selected participants may choose not to participate, meaning only people who are interested will participate. This means that the findings can’t be generalised.
What is volunteer sampling?
When participants select themselves to be part of the study.
Give three strengths of volunteer sampling.
- This method is free from researcher bias as the researcher has no influence over who is selected, preventing them from selecting those they believe will support their hypothesis. This improves the validity of the results.
- This method is convenient and saves the researcher time and money
- This method requires minimal input from the researcher as the participants come to them, so the validity is increased as the researcher has no influence on the participants’ selection.
Give a weakness of volunteer sampling.
Asking for participants may attract a certain type of person who is particularly curious or helpful, which affects how far the findings can be generalised.
What is systematic sampling?
The researcher has a sampling frame e.g. list of all members of the target population and establishes a system for selection e.g. selecting every 3rd person from the list.
Give three strengths of systematic sampling.
- This method is free from researcher bias as the researcher has no influence over who is selected, preventing them from selecting those they believe will support their hypothesis. This improves the validity of the results.
- Once the system for selection has been established the researcher has no influence on the selection of participants.
- This method is usually representative.
Give two weaknesses of systematic sampling.
- Obtaining a complete list of the target population could be difficult.
- Selected participants may choose not to take part, meaning the researcher has to complete the process of selection again.
What is stratified sampling?
When the composition of the sample reflects the proportions of people in strata (subgroups) within the target population.
Give two strengths of stratified sampling.
- Once a population has been subdivided into strata, the selection of participants can’t be influenced by the researcher, avoiding researcher bias. This improves the validity of the results.
- This is the most representative method, meaning it can be generalised to the target population.
Give three weaknesses of stratified sampling.
- This doesn’t guarantee the whole target population is represented because it doesn’t account for individual differences
- This method is difficult and time-consuming to conduct. A complete list of the target population may be difficult to obtain.
- The selected participants may choose not to participate, meaning the researcher must complete the process of selecting participants again.
What is experimental design?
The different ways in which participants can be organised in relation to the experimental conditions.
What are independent groups in experimental design?
When two separate groups of participants experience two different conditions of the experiment.
What are repeated measures in experimental design?
When both groups of participants experience both conditions of the experiment.
What are matched pairs in experimental design?
Participants are paired together based on variables relevant to the experiment. One participant from each pair experiences one condition of the experiment and the other participant experiences the other condition.
What are matched pairs in experimental design?
Participants are paired together based on variables relevant to the experiment. One participant from each pair experiences one condition of the experiment and the other participant experiences the other condition.
Give two strengths of an independent groups design.
Participants are less likely to guess the aims of the research.
Participants won’t get more practiced/bored/fatigued during the second condition.
Give two weaknesses of an independent groups design.
Differences in the DV could be due to participant variables rather than the change in the IV as two different groups of people are being compared.
Less economical than repeated measures as two sets of participants are required.
Give two strengths of a repeated measures design.
Controls participant variables as each participant is only compared with themselves.
More economical than independent groups.
Give two weaknesses of a repeated measures design.
Participants are more likely to figure out the aim as they can see both sides of the experiment.
Order effects - if the tasks are skill-based, they could gain practice, improving performance in the second task; repeating a task with only a slight difference could cause boredom or fatigue.
Give two strengths of a matched pairs design.
Order effects and demand characteristics are less likely to impact the results.
As the participants are matched, participant variables are less likely to impact the results than in an independent groups design.
Give two weaknesses of a matched pairs design.
Participants cannot be matched exactly - some variables may be overlooked that could affect the DV.
Matching can be time-consuming and expensive.
What is random allocation in an independent groups design?
This is when a lottery method is used to randomly allocate participants to each experimental condition, minimising the impact of participant variables on the results.
What is a lab experiment?
A lab experiment takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of EVs.
What are the strengths of lab experiments?
- high control over extraneous variables ensuring cause and effect
- high internal validity
- can be replicated
What are the weaknesses of lab experiments?
- lack generalisability because not in natural environment
- low external validity
- demand characteristics
- low mundane realism
What is a field experiment?
A field experiment takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.
What are the strengths of field experiments?
- high mundane realism
- high external validity
What are the weaknesses of field experiments?
- low control of extraneous variables so can’t establish cause and effect
- hard to replicate
- ethical issues
What is a natural experiment?
A natural experiment is where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher but would have happened even if the researcher was not there. The researcher records the effect on the DV.
What are the strengths of natural experiments?
- give opportunities for research that would otherwise not have happened
- high external validity
- can be generalised to understand behaviour in unusual situations
What are the weaknesses of natural experiments?
- less opportunities for research
- harder to generalise
- participants may not be randomly allocated so it’s hard to determine cause and effect
What is a quasi-experiment?
A quasi-experiment is a study that is almost an experiment but lacks key ingredients - the IV has not been determined by anyone (the researcher or anyone else) - the variables simply exist.
What are the strengths of quasi-experiments?
- high control of extraneous variables
- high internal validity
- replicable
What are ethical issues in psychological research?
When a conflict arises between the rights of participants in the study and the researcher’s goal of producing authentic data.
What organisation has produced a code of ethics for psychologists?
The British Psychological Society.
What is informed consent in a research study?
The requirement that the researcher obtains full consent from participants for their data to be used in the results. The participants should be aware beforehand of what they will be asked to do and what their data will be used for.
Why is informed consent a problem for researchers?
If participants know the aims of the study, demand characteristics are more likely to affect the results.
What is deception in a research study?
When the researcher withholds information or misleads participants. Ideally, this should not be done, but sometimes researchers will do this to get more accurate results.
What is confidentiality in a research study?
The requirement that the researcher should keep all personal information about participants secret. This should be done by keeping any physical documents locked up and online documents under password protection. All personal data should be destroyed once the experiment has finished.
When should a debrief be given to participants?
After the study has finished.
What should be included in the debrief given to participants of a study?
- aims of the research
- any withheld information e.g. about other conditions
- a reminder of participants’ right to withdraw their data
What is protection from harm in a research study?
The requirement that the researcher avoids all risk to participants. If harm is caused by the study to the participants, the researcher must negate/reverse that harm.
What is presumptive consent?
When the researcher asks a group similar to the participants to consent on their behalf.
What is prior general consent?
Participants are asked to consent to multiple studies, one of which includes deception.
What is retrospective consent?
When participants are asked for consent during the debrief.
What was the aim of Milgram’s obedience study?
To investigate obedience to authority figures and why so many Germans assisted the Nazis.
What was the procedure of Milgram’s obedience study?
Volunteers who believed they were in a memory study had to administer a memory test to an actor who they believed to be a participant. If the actor answered questions incorrectly, the participant had to give them an electric shock. If they wanted to leave, an actor in a white coat encouraged them to continue.
What was found in Milgram’s obedience study?
Most participants continued to the severest shock (450 volts) while all continued to 300 volts. This suggested that people are more willing to harm others when asked to do so by a perceived authority figure.
Did Milgram’s obedience study include informed consent/deception?
Deception
Did Milgram’s obedience study debrief participants?
Yes
Did Milgram allow participants to withdraw from his obedience study?
Yes, but he did not meet the withdrawal criteria in the BPS ethics guidelines as participants were made to feel as though they could not withdraw.
Did Milgram protect participants in his obedience study from harm?
No - severe mental/psychological harm was caused to participants.
What was the aim of Zimbardo’s conformity study?
To investigate why prison guards behave abusively towards prisoners.
What was the procedure of Zimbardo’s conformity study?
Zimbardo set up a mock prison and randomly assigned participants to the roles of prisoner or guard.
What was found in Zimbardo’s conformity study?
Zimbardo found that the two groups quickly separated into social roles. Guards began to mistreat prisoners, who became depressed and anxious. Eventually the study was ended early.
Did Zimbardo get informed consent for his study on conformity?
Yes - participants were aware that the prison was fake.
Did Zimbardo deceive participants during his study on conformity?
Yes - he told the guards that they had been selected for the role from their interviews when they had actually been randomly assigned to the role.
Did Zimbardo debrief participants after his conformity study?
Yes - but significantly after the study had been completed.
Did Zimbardo allow participants to withdraw from his conformity study?
Yes - but one participant was not allowed.
Did Zimbardo protect participants in his conformity study from harm?
No - prisoners received severe harm (one went on hunger strike and several others experienced psychological disturbance, depression and anxiety) and it is possible that guards were psychologically harmed as well.
What is a pilot study?
A small-scale practice of the study with a smaller sample
Why are pilot studies useful?
They allow the researcher to check that procedures are correct and make changes. This will save time and money because they won’t have to repeat the study.
What are single-blind procedures?
When the participants don’t know the aims of the study or details about the study.
Why are single-blind procedures useful?
They control for demand characteristics by making it harder for the participants to guess the aims of the study.
What are double-blind procedures?
When the researcher also doesn’t know the aims of the study - a third party is asked to conduct the study.
Why are double-blind procedures useful?
They control for investigator effects because the real researcher is not in contact with the participants and can’t give them unconscious cues.
What are control conditions?
A condition of the experiment where the IV has no effect.
Why are control conditions useful?
The researcher can compare the results from the control condition to the other condition, which helps to determine whether the change in the IV was significant.
Are observations always done on their own?
No. Observations can be used in an experiment, often to measure the dependent variable.
What are naturalistic observations?
When behaviour is observed in the setting where it would usually occur and all aspects of the environment are free to vary.
What are the strengths of naturalistic observations?
They have a high external validity because findings can be more easily generalised to real life.
What are the weaknesses of naturalistic observations?
- They are hard to replicate because the researcher has a lack of control over the environment
- The results are more likely to be affected by extraneous variables
What are controlled observations?
When behaviour is observed in a structured environment. The researcher can control extraneous variables and manipulate the independent variables to observe the effect.
What are the strengths of controlled observations?
- Replication is more possible because extraneous variables have a lesser impact
- Higher internal validity
- Researchers can observe participants’ responses to specific situations
What are the weaknesses of controlled observations?
- Findings cannot be as readily generalised as in a naturalistic observation
- Low external validity
What are covert observations?
When participants’ behaviour is observed without their knowledge or consent.
What are the strengths of covert observations?
- Low participant reactivity, meaning they will display more natural behaviour
- High validity
What are the weaknesses of covert observations?
There are ethical issues. Covert observations are only allowed if the behaviour observed takes place in public.
What are overt observations?
When participants’ behaviour is observed with their knowledge and consent.
What are the strengths of overt observations?
They are more ethically acceptable than covert observations.
What are the weaknesses of overt observations?
The knowledge that they are being watched may affect the participants’ behaviour - demand characteristics.
What are participant observations?
When the researcher becomes a member of the group whose behaviour they are observing and participates in the same activities as them.
What are the strengths of participant observations?
They give the researcher more insight into participants’ lives and behaviour, increasing the external validity of the results.
What are the weaknesses of participant observations?
Going native - when the researcher begins to sympathise with participants and lose objectivity
What are non-participant observations?
When the researcher remains outside of the group whose behaviour they are observing.
What are the strengths of non-participant observations?
They allow the researcher to maintain an objective distance from the participants, increasing the internal validity of the results.
What are the weaknesses of non-participant observations?
The researcher may lose valuable insight into participants’ behaviour that they would have gained through a participant observation because they are too far removed from the participants.
What is observer bias?
When the observer’s interpretation of a situation is affected by their expectations.
What are unstructured observations?
When the observer records everything they see.
When are unstructured observations appropriate?
When observations are small scale with few participants.
Give one strength of unstructured observations.
The data collected has more detail than in structured observations, allowing the researcher to gain a deeper insight into participants’ behaviour.
Give two weaknesses of unstructured observations.
Unstructured observations are more difficult to analyse than structured observations because they collect qualitative data. There is also a greater risk of observer bias affecting the results.
What are structured observations?
When a pre-determined list of behaviours is used, allowing the researcher to simplify what they are looking for and quantify their results.
When are structured observations appropriate?
When there is too much going on for the researcher to record it all.
Give two strengths of structured observations.
Data collected in structured observations is easier to analyse than that collected in unstructured observations because it is quantitative. There is also less of a risk of observer bias because the researcher has a clear list of what behaviours to look for.
Give two weaknesses of structured observations.
In structured observations, less detail is collected, so the researcher has no insight into the context of the behaviours analysed. Furthermore, the list of behavioural categories may be vague or omit important details.
What are behavioural categories?
A checklist of behaviours that the researcher is looking for.
Why must behavioural categories be precisely defined?
So all observers interpret them in the same way.
What is continuous recording?
When all instances of the target behaviour are recorded.
What is event sampling?
When the number of times a particular behaviour occurs in a target group is recorded.
What is time sampling?
When behaviour is recorded within a pre-established time frame.
Why can’t researchers conduct observations alone?
Observer bias - a single observer may miss important events or only record events confirming their hypotheses/opinions.
What is inter-observer reliability?
Observers familiarise themselves with the behavioural categories - sometimes a pilot study is done.
They observe behaviour at the same time and record it independently.
Observers will then analyse the results of the study.
How is inter-observer reliability calculated?
Each pair of observations is correlated, looking for a positive correlation between the observers.
What is a self-report technique?
A method in which the participant is asked to state or explain their own feelings, opinions, behaviour and/or experiences related to a given topic.
What is a questionnaire?
A set of written questions used to assess a person’s thoughts and/or experiences.
Are questionnaires used in experiments or alone?
Questionnaires can be used by themselves and also in experiments to assess the dependent variable.
Give three strengths of using questionnaires.
Questionnaires are cost-effective because they gather large amounts of data quickly. They require minimal effort from the researcher. Also the data collected is typically straightforward to analyse and lends itself to comparison.
Give three weaknesses of using questionnaires (types of bias).
Demand characteristics - participants respond in the way they think the researcher wants.
Social desirability bias - participants try to make themselves look better.
Acquiescence bias - participants respond yes/agree to every question.
All of these mean that responses are not accurate, lowering the validity of the results.
What are open questions?
Questions without a fixed range of responses, where the respondent can respond however they want to.
Give one advantage of using open questions in a questionnaire/interview.
The data produced from open questions is rich in detail and depth.
Give one disadvantage of using open questions in a questionnaire/interview.
Open questions produce qualitative data which is difficult to analyse.
What are closed questions?
Questions with a fixed number of responses.
Give one advantage of using closed questions in a questionnaire/interview.
Closed questions produce quantitative data which is easy to analyse.
Give one disadvantage of using closed questions in a questionnaire/interview.
Data produced lacks the depth and detail gained from open questions.
What are Likert scales and what type of question are they?
Likert scales are a type of closed question where the respondent indicates agreement/disagreement to a statement numerically.
What are rating scales and what type of question are they?
Rating scales are a type of closed question where the respondent indicates their strength of feeling/opinion on a topic numerically.
What are fixed choice options and what type of question are they?
Fixed choice options are a type of closed question including a list of potential responses. Respondents indicate those that apply to them.
What is jargon and why should it not be used in questions?
Jargon is the use of technical terms which are only understood by people within a specific field. It shouldn’t be used because it will confuse the general public, so they won’t understand what the question is asking.
What is emotive language and why should it not be used in questions?
Emotive language indicates the author’s opinion on a topic. It shouldn’t be used because it will steer the respondent towards a specific answer.
What are leading questions and why should they not be used?
Leading questions contain information the author is looking to have confirmed and suggests a specific answer. They shouldn’t be used because they influence the responses received.
What are double-barrelled questions and why shouldn’t they be used?
Double-barrelled questions include two questions instead of one. They shouldn’t be used because respondents may only agree to one half of the question.
Why shouldn’t double negatives be used in questions?
Double negatives shouldn’t be used in questions because they can confuse the respondent as to what the question is really asking.
What are structured interviews?
Interviews made up of a pre-determined set of questions which are asked in a fixed order.
Give a strength of structured interviews.
They are straightforward to replicate due to their standardised format.
Give a weakness of structured interviews.
Participants cannot elaborate on their answers, which may mean the results are less insightful.
What are unstructured interviews?
Interviews with no set questions, just a general aim of what to discuss.
Give a strength of unstructured interviews.
They are flexible because the interviewer can follow up points and interviewees can elaborate, which can increase the depth of the results and how insightful they are.
Give a weakness of unstructured interviews.
The results are difficult to analyse, which makes it difficult for the researcher to draw any firm conclusions.
What is an interview schedule?
An interview schedule tells interviewers either what questions to ask or the general aim for the interview.
What is qualitative data?
Data expressed in words.
Give two strengths of qualitative data.
- Offers richer detail and a broader scope
- High external validity
Give a weakness of qualitative data.
Data is difficult to analyse, which could lead to the researcher drawing biased conclusions.
What is quantitative data?
Data expressed numerically.
Give two strengths of quantitative data.
- Open to statistical analysis
- Produces more objective results
Give two weaknesses of quantitative data.
- Narrower scope and less detail
- Low external validity
What is primary data?
Original data which the researcher collects for a specific investigation directly from participants.
Give a strength of primary data.
The data is authentic and suitable for the specific investigation.
Give a weakness of primary data.
Collecting primary data requires time, effort and money from the researcher.
What is secondary data?
Data which existed before the researcher starts their investigation and was collected by someone else.
Give two strengths of secondary data.
- Data is easily accessed and inexpensive
- May eliminate need for primary data collection
Give a weakness of secondary data.
The data can’t be verified so there may be variation in its quality and accuracy. This could affect the validity.
What is meta-analysis?
Meta-analysis is when a number of studies into the same hypothesis/aim are identified and the results from each study are put together to produce a joint conclusion.
Define measure of central tendency.
A number representing the central value in a set of data.
What are the three measures of central tendency?
Mean, median and mode.
How do you calculate the mean?
By adding up all values in a set of data and dividing this by the number of values.
Give a strength of using the mean to interpret data.
It’s the most representative measure of central tendency as it includes all of the data, including extreme values.
Give a weakness of using the mean to interpret data.
The mean is easily distorted by extreme values and can become unrepresentative.
How do you calculate the median?
By arranging the values in a set of data from lowest to highest and picking the central value.
Give two strengths of using the median to interpret data.
- It’s not affected by extreme values
- It’s easy to calculate
Give a weakness of using the median to interpret data.
It’s less sensitive than the mean and therefore doesn’t include all values.
How do you find the mode?
The mode is the most frequently occurring value in a set of data.
Give two strengths of using the mode to interpret data.
- Sometimes, the mode is the only measure of central tendency available, such as when interpreting categorical data.
- The mode is easy to calculate
Give two weaknesses of using the mode to interpret data.
- It doesn’t usually represent the whole data set
- Sometimes, there are several modes in a data set, or none at all, which is not very useful information
Define measures of dispersion.
A value used to represent how different the values in a data set are from one another.
How do you calculate the range?
Subtract the lowest value from the highest value and add 1 (as a mathematical correction)
Give a strength of using the range to interpret data.
It’s easy to calculate.
Give a weakness of using the range to interpret data.
It only takes into account the two extreme values so may not be representative of the whole data set.
What is the standard deviation?
A value showing how far the values in the data set deviate from the mean by calculating the difference between the mean and each value (and dividing by the number of values).
Give a strength of using the standard deviation to interpret data.
It’s more precise than the range as it includes all values.
Give a weakness of using the standard deviation to interpret data.
It can be distorted by a single extreme value.
Define correlation.
A correlation is a mathematical technique in which a researcher investigates an association between two co-variables.
Define positive correlation.
As one value increases, the other also increases.
Define negative correlation.
As one value increases, the other decreases.
Define zero correlation.
There is no relationship between the variables.
Give two strengths of correlations.
- useful as a primary tool
- quick and economical
Give two weaknesses of correlations.
- cannot demonstrate cause and effect
- third variable problem
What is the third variable problem in correlations?
A third variable, known as the intervening variable, could be causing the relationship between the co-variables.
What are the differences between correlations and experiments?
- whether cause and effect can be established
- the variables involved
What is the correlation coefficient?
A number between -1 and 1 that represents the degree to which two variables are correlated.
What type of data is presented in a table?
Quantitative data.
How is data presented in a table?
The raw scores are converted into descriptive statistics, which are then put into the table.
What is always included under a results table?
A summary paragraph to explain the results.
When is a bar chart used to present data?
When the data is discrete (divided into distinct categories).
Do the bars in a bar chart touch?
No.
What is on each axis in a bar chart?
X-axis - categories
Y-axis - frequency
Are histograms used to display discrete or continuous data?
Continuous.
Do the bars in a histogram touch?
Yes.
What is on each axis in a histogram?
X-axis - equal-sized intervals of one category
Y-axis - frequency of each interval
What do scatter graphs display?
Correlations.
Does it matter which co-variable goes on what axis in a scatter graph?
No.
What do line graphs show?
How something changes over time.
Are line graphs used to display discrete or continuous data?
Continuous.
What goes on each axis in a line graph?
X-axis - IV
Y-axis - DV
What are the features of a normal distribution?
- bell-shaped curve
- most people in the middle
- mean, median and mode all at midpoint
- never touches x-axis
What is a positively skewed distribution?
When most people are concentrated on the left side of the graph, with a long tail at the right.
How does a positively skewed distribution affect the measures of central tendency?
Mode is still at the highest point (but a lower number), the median is slightly higher and the mean is pulled to the right (high).
What is a negatively skewed distribution?
When most people are concentrated on the right side of the graph with a long tail on the left.
How does a negatively skewed distribution affect the measures of central tendency?
The mode is still at the highest point of the peak (a higher number), the median is slightly lower and the mean is pulled to the left (lower).
What is peer review?
The assessment of scientific work by others who are specialists in the same field to ensure that any research intended for publication is of high quality. All aspects of the research are scrutinised by experts.
When will peer review happen?
Before the research is published in an academic journal. It can also happen when a research proposal has been submitted to determine whether the researcher will receive funding.
What are the three aims of peer review?
- To allocate research funding
- To validate the quality and relevance of the research
- To suggest amendments and improvements
Give an example of fraud in psychology.
Cyril Burt’s research into intelligence, which led to the introduction of the 11-plus test.
How does peer review guard against fraud?
All aspects of the research and data are thoroughly assessed, so if the researcher has made errors they will be detected.
Why is anonymous peer review preferred by most academic journals?
It leads to more honest and unbiased research if the peer doesn’t know whose research they’re reviewing.
Why do a minority of journals prefer open peer review to anonymous?
Researchers can reject research if it rivals their research on a similar topic.
What is publication bias and why is it a weakness?
Publication bias is the tendency for editors to favour significant research. It can lead to important research being rejected, creating a false view of psychology.
Why does groundbreaking research sometimes get rejected and why is this a weakness?
Research is reviewed by experts, who will want to maintain the current paradigm. If the research contradicts established theories, it could be rejected. This slows down the rate of change in psychology.
