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Biology Topic 5 > Topic 7 > Flashcards

Topic 7 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the properties of a ligament

A

Join bone to bone

Elastic

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2
Q

What are antagonistic muscles

A

A pair of muscles that work together to flex and extend a joint

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3
Q

What is the structure of muscles

A 
Bundles of muscle fibres 
Each fibre is a single muscle cell
Muscle cells are multinucleated 
Many myofibrils within each fibre 
Each myofibril contains a contracting unit called a sarcomere
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4
Q

What are actin and myosin

A

Actin is a thin filament
Myosin is a thick filament
Actin contracts and slides over myosin

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5
Q

What are the steps in the sliding filament theory

A

1) Specialised endoplasmic reticulum releases Ca ions
2) Which diffuse through the sarcoplasm
3) binding to troponin causing tropomyosin to move and expose the myosin binding site
4) myosin head binds to actin
5) releasing ADP and Pi to be released
6) this release causes myosin head to nod forwards, sliding actin over myosin
7) ATP binds causing the myosin head to detach
8) ATPase causes ATP hydrolysis allowing the myosin head to return upright

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6
Q

Where does glycolysis take place

A

In the cytoplasm

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7
Q

Outline the steps in glycolysis

A

1) glucose phosphorylated twice to a 6C sugar
2) 2ATP supply a P making the sugar more reactive
3) breaks down into 2, 3C sugars
4) hydrogen is removed and passed to NAD
5) NAD is reduced
6) forming Pyruvate

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8
Q

Where does the link reaction take place

A

Cytoplasm and mitochondrion membrane

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9
Q

Outline the steps in the link reaction

A

1) CO2 and H2 are removed to create 2, 2C molecules
2) H2 is transferred to NAD to reduce it to NADH
3) 2C molecules them combine with CoA to form AcetylCoA

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10
Q

Where does the Krebs cycle take place

A

In the matrix of the mitochondria

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11
Q

Outline the steps in the Krebs cycle

A

1) AcetylCoA bind to 4C to create 6C
2) 6C is dehydrogenated and decarboxylated to 5C
3) 5C is decarboxylated and 6H are removed to form 4C
4) removal of H forms reduced FAD and NAD

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12
Q

Where does the electron transport chain take place

A

In the mitochondrial membrane

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13
Q

Outline the steps in the electron transport chain

A

1) reduced coenzymes carry H+ and e-
2) NADH is oxidised, releasing its H+ and e-
3) 2e- pass from one electron carrier to the next
4) H+ moves across inner mitochondrial membrane into intermembrane space forming electro chemical gradient
5) H+ diffuses back into matrix down gradient
6) allows ATPase to catalyse ATP synthesis
7) transported e- combine with 1/2 O2 to form H2O

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14
Q

Define chemiosmosis

A

Movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient
Electron transport chain

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15
Q

What happens during anaerobic respiration

A

Just glycolysis
Lactate builds up forming lactic acid
Causes cell pH to drop
Build up of H+ neutralise negatively charged groups of enzymes active site
Affects attraction between active site and substrate

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16
Q

Define aerobic capacity

A

The ability to take in, deliver and use oxygen

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17
Q

What is creatine phosphate

A

Substance stored in muscles that can be hydrolysed to release energy
Energy is used to regenerate ATP
It’s breakdown begins as soon as exercise starts

Known as the ATP/PC system

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18
Q

What does the three energy system entail

A

Aerobic cannot meet initial demand for energy as supply oxygen to muscles is insufficient
First the ATP/PC system then anaerobic

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19
Q

What is VO2

A

Amount of oxygen consumed per minute at rest

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20
Q

What is VO2 max

A

The amount of oxygen consumed per minute while exercising

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21
Q

Why does heart rate increase during exercise

A

Oxygen used in aerobic respiration - greater amount transported in blood
Glucose needed in respiration - carried by plasma in blood
CO2 waste product of respiration - CO2 removed quicker

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22
Q

Define stroke volume

A

The amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle each time it contracts

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23
Q

Define venous return

A

The amount of blood returned to the heart

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24
Q

Define cardiac output

A

The amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle in one minute
Stroke volume X heart rate

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25
What is the cardiovascular control centre
CCC Controls heart rate and found in medulla of the brain Sympathetic nerve - increases heart rate Vagus nerve - decreases heart rate
26
What receptors are accumulation of CO2/lactate and reduction in O2 detected by
Chemoreceptors
27
What receptor is increasing temp detected by
Thermoreceptors
28
What receptors is mechanical activity detected by
Proprior receptors
29
What receptor is blood pressure detected by
Barrow receptors
30
Define myotonic
It can contract without external nervous stimulation
31
What are the sequence of events for one heart beat
1) depolarisation begins at SAN where an electrical impulse is generated 2) wave of depolarisation causes atria to contract at the same time 3) impulse is delayed at the AVN before passing through ventricles 4) impulse passes down purkinje fibres of apex of heart 5) impulses spread through ventricle walls causing contraction from apex upwards
32
What does the P wave of an ECG signify
Depolarisation of atria
33
What does the PR interval of an ECG signify
Delay of AV node to allow filling of ventricles
34
What does the QRS Compex of an ECG signify
Depolarisation of ventricles
35
What does the T wave of an ECG signify
Ventricular repolarisation
36
What does the ST Segment of an ECG signify
Beginning of ventricle repolarization
37
Define bradycardia
Heart rate less than 60bpm
38
Define tachycardia
Heart rate greater than 100bpm
39
Define ischaemia
Heart muscle does not receive blood due to atherosclerosis
40
What is the ventilation centre
Located in medulla oblongata | Sends nerve impulses to external intercostal and diaphragm muscles causing them to contract in inhalation
41
What happens as air inflates the lungs
Stretch receptors in the bronchioles are stimulated Send inhibitory impulses to the ventilation centre Impulses to external muscles stop, causing muscles to relax
42
Define residual volume
Volume of air left in the lungs after exhalation
43
How is the rate and death of breathing controlled and what is its main stimulus
Main stimulus - conc of CO2 in arterial blood Forms H+ ions when dissolves in blood plasma Chemoreceptors in carotid and aorta detect changes in pH Chemoreceptors in ventilation centre of brain also Increases rate and depth of breathing
44
How is rate and depth of breathing during exercise increased
Stretch receptors in muscles and tendons send impulses to ventilation centre
45
Describe the main features of slow twitch fibres
``` Slower contraction Aerobic respiration More myoglobin: O2 store in muscles Better capillary network Red Little sarcoplasmic reticulum ```
46
Describe the main features of fast twitch fibres
``` Faster contraction Anaerobic respiration Little myoglobin: O2 store in muscles Fewer associated capillaries White Extensive sarcoplasmic reticulum ```
47
How are deviations from norm body temp controlled
``` Detected by thermoreceptors Impulses sent to heat loss/gain centre in hypothalamus Effectors react Temp returns to norm A form of negative feedback ```
48
What actions does the heat loss centre control
Stimulates sweat glands to secrete sweat Inhibits: contraction of arterioles I.e dilates them Hair erector muscles relax Skeletal muscles relax to prevent shivering Liver reduces metabolic rate
49
What actions does the heat gain centre control
``` Stimulates: arterioles in the skin constrict Hair erector muscles contract Liver raises metabolic rate Skeletal muscles begin to contract Inhibits: sweat glands ```
50
What happens during vasoconstriction
Energy is lost through blood flowing through the surface of capillaries through radiation Muscles in arterioles walls constrict reducing blood supply to surface of capillaries Blood diverted to shunt vessels causing them to dilate Blood flows further from skin surface
51
What happens during vasodilation
Constriction of arterioles and shunts is controlled by the hypothalamus Shunt vessels constrict and muscles in walls of arterioles relax Blood flows through arterioles making them dilate
52
How is blood solute concentration controlled
If itemises from the norm due to too little water Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus stimulated Pituitary gland secretes hormone ADH Kidneys reassign more water from urine
53
What happens with moderate exercise?
Increases number and activity of lymphocytes
54
What happens with excessive exercise
Increases risk of upper respiratory tract infections | Increased wear and tear on joints
55
What are the properties of a tendon?
Join muscle to bone | In elastic
56
What are the positives of key hole surgery
Less chance of bleeding due to small incision hole Reduced hospital stays Rapid recovery
57
Define prosthetics
An artificial body part used by someone with a disability to enable him to regain some degree of normal function or appearance
58
Define dynamic response
Changes shape under body weight but returns to its original shape
59
Define articulated
Have joints making them better in uneven surfaces
60
Describe peptide hormones
Not able to pass through the cell membrane Bind to receptors activating secondary messengers in cytoplasm Bringing about chemical changes within the cell Directly or indirectly affecting gene transcription
61
Describe steroid hormones
Able to pass through cell membrane as lipids Bind directly to receptors within the cytoplasm A hormone - receptor complex forms which brings about characteristic properties Complex functions as a transcription factor
62
What is the drug EPO
Peptide hormone naturally produced by kidneys Stimulates formation of new red blood cells in bone marrow If levels too high leads to increased risk thrombosis
63
What is the hormone testosterone
Steroids hormone produced by testis and in small amounts by adrenal glands Bind to androgen receptors and modify gene expression to alter the development of cell to increase anabolic reactions Used to increase muscle development Can lead to high blood pressure, liver damage, changes in menstrual cycle and sperm production
64
What is the drug creatine
Not banned An amino acid derived compound found in supplements Carried int the blood to tissues Causes improvements in performance during repeated, short duration and high intensity exercise

Biology Topic 5 (2 decks)

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