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Biology Topic 5 > Topic 7 > Flashcards

Topic 7 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the properties of a ligament

A

Join bone to bone

Elastic

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2
Q

What are antagonistic muscles

A

A pair of muscles that work together to flex and extend a joint

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3
Q

What is the structure of muscles

A 
Bundles of muscle fibres 
Each fibre is a single muscle cell
Muscle cells are multinucleated 
Many myofibrils within each fibre 
Each myofibril contains a contracting unit called a sarcomere
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4
Q

What are actin and myosin

A

Actin is a thin filament
Myosin is a thick filament
Actin contracts and slides over myosin

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5
Q

What are the steps in the sliding filament theory

A

1) Specialised endoplasmic reticulum releases Ca ions
2) Which diffuse through the sarcoplasm
3) binding to troponin causing tropomyosin to move and expose the myosin binding site
4) myosin head binds to actin
5) releasing ADP and Pi to be released
6) this release causes myosin head to nod forwards, sliding actin over myosin
7) ATP binds causing the myosin head to detach
8) ATPase causes ATP hydrolysis allowing the myosin head to return upright

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6
Q

Where does glycolysis take place

A

In the cytoplasm

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7
Q

Outline the steps in glycolysis

A

1) glucose phosphorylated twice to a 6C sugar
2) 2ATP supply a P making the sugar more reactive
3) breaks down into 2, 3C sugars
4) hydrogen is removed and passed to NAD
5) NAD is reduced
6) forming Pyruvate

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8
Q

Where does the link reaction take place

A

Cytoplasm and mitochondrion membrane

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9
Q

Outline the steps in the link reaction

A

1) CO2 and H2 are removed to create 2, 2C molecules
2) H2 is transferred to NAD to reduce it to NADH
3) 2C molecules them combine with CoA to form AcetylCoA

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10
Q

Where does the Krebs cycle take place

A

In the matrix of the mitochondria

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11
Q

Outline the steps in the Krebs cycle

A

1) AcetylCoA bind to 4C to create 6C
2) 6C is dehydrogenated and decarboxylated to 5C
3) 5C is decarboxylated and 6H are removed to form 4C
4) removal of H forms reduced FAD and NAD

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12
Q

Where does the electron transport chain take place

A

In the mitochondrial membrane

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13
Q

Outline the steps in the electron transport chain

A

1) reduced coenzymes carry H+ and e-
2) NADH is oxidised, releasing its H+ and e-
3) 2e- pass from one electron carrier to the next
4) H+ moves across inner mitochondrial membrane into intermembrane space forming electro chemical gradient
5) H+ diffuses back into matrix down gradient
6) allows ATPase to catalyse ATP synthesis
7) transported e- combine with 1/2 O2 to form H2O

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14
Q

Define chemiosmosis

A

Movement of ions across a selectively permeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient
Electron transport chain

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15
Q

What happens during anaerobic respiration

A

Just glycolysis
Lactate builds up forming lactic acid
Causes cell pH to drop
Build up of H+ neutralise negatively charged groups of enzymes active site
Affects attraction between active site and substrate

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16
Q

Define aerobic capacity

A

The ability to take in, deliver and use oxygen

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17
Q

What is creatine phosphate

A

Substance stored in muscles that can be hydrolysed to release energy
Energy is used to regenerate ATP
It’s breakdown begins as soon as exercise starts

Known as the ATP/PC system

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18
Q

What does the three energy system entail

A

Aerobic cannot meet initial demand for energy as supply oxygen to muscles is insufficient
First the ATP/PC system then anaerobic

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19
Q

What is VO2

A

Amount of oxygen consumed per minute at rest

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20
Q

What is VO2 max

A

The amount of oxygen consumed per minute while exercising

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21
Q

Why does heart rate increase during exercise

A

Oxygen used in aerobic respiration - greater amount transported in blood
Glucose needed in respiration - carried by plasma in blood
CO2 waste product of respiration - CO2 removed quicker

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22
Q

Define stroke volume

A

The amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle each time it contracts

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23
Q

Define venous return

A

The amount of blood returned to the heart

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24
Q

Define cardiac output

A

The amount of blood pumped out of the left ventricle in one minute
Stroke volume X heart rate

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25
Q

What is the cardiovascular control centre

A

CCC
Controls heart rate and found in medulla of the brain
Sympathetic nerve - increases heart rate
Vagus nerve - decreases heart rate

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26
Q

What receptors are accumulation of CO2/lactate and reduction in O2 detected by

A

Chemoreceptors

27
Q

What receptor is increasing temp detected by

A

Thermoreceptors

28
Q

What receptors is mechanical activity detected by

A

Proprior receptors

29
Q

What receptor is blood pressure detected by

A

Barrow receptors

30
Q

Define myotonic

A

It can contract without external nervous stimulation

31
Q

What are the sequence of events for one heart beat

A

1) depolarisation begins at SAN where an electrical impulse is generated
2) wave of depolarisation causes atria to contract at the same time
3) impulse is delayed at the AVN before passing through ventricles
4) impulse passes down purkinje fibres of apex of heart
5) impulses spread through ventricle walls causing contraction from apex upwards

32
Q

What does the P wave of an ECG signify

A

Depolarisation of atria

33
Q

What does the PR interval of an ECG signify

A

Delay of AV node to allow filling of ventricles

34
Q

What does the QRS Compex of an ECG signify

A

Depolarisation of ventricles

35
Q

What does the T wave of an ECG signify

A

Ventricular repolarisation

36
Q

What does the ST Segment of an ECG signify

A

Beginning of ventricle repolarization

37
Q

Define bradycardia

A

Heart rate less than 60bpm

38
Q

Define tachycardia

A

Heart rate greater than 100bpm

39
Q

Define ischaemia

A

Heart muscle does not receive blood due to atherosclerosis

40
Q

What is the ventilation centre

A

Located in medulla oblongata

Sends nerve impulses to external intercostal and diaphragm muscles causing them to contract in inhalation

41
Q

What happens as air inflates the lungs

A

Stretch receptors in the bronchioles are stimulated
Send inhibitory impulses to the ventilation centre
Impulses to external muscles stop, causing muscles to relax

42
Q

Define residual volume

A

Volume of air left in the lungs after exhalation

43
Q

How is the rate and death of breathing controlled and what is its main stimulus

A

Main stimulus - conc of CO2 in arterial blood
Forms H+ ions when dissolves in blood plasma
Chemoreceptors in carotid and aorta detect changes in pH
Chemoreceptors in ventilation centre of brain also
Increases rate and depth of breathing

44
Q

How is rate and depth of breathing during exercise increased

A

Stretch receptors in muscles and tendons send impulses to ventilation centre

45
Q

Describe the main features of slow twitch fibres

A 
Slower contraction 
Aerobic respiration 
More myoglobin: O2 store in muscles 
Better capillary network 
Red 
Little sarcoplasmic reticulum
46
Q

Describe the main features of fast twitch fibres

A 
Faster contraction 
Anaerobic respiration 
Little myoglobin: O2 store in muscles 
Fewer associated capillaries 
White
Extensive sarcoplasmic reticulum
47
Q

How are deviations from norm body temp controlled

A 
Detected by thermoreceptors 
Impulses sent to heat loss/gain centre in hypothalamus 
Effectors react 
Temp returns to norm 
A form of negative feedback
48
Q

What actions does the heat loss centre control

A

Stimulates sweat glands to secrete sweat
Inhibits: contraction of arterioles I.e dilates them
Hair erector muscles relax
Skeletal muscles relax to prevent shivering
Liver reduces metabolic rate

49
Q

What actions does the heat gain centre control

A 
Stimulates: arterioles in the skin constrict
Hair erector muscles contract 
Liver raises metabolic rate 
Skeletal muscles begin to contract 
Inhibits: sweat glands
50
Q

What happens during vasoconstriction

A

Energy is lost through blood flowing through the surface of capillaries through radiation
Muscles in arterioles walls constrict reducing blood supply to surface of capillaries
Blood diverted to shunt vessels causing them to dilate
Blood flows further from skin surface

51
Q

What happens during vasodilation

A

Constriction of arterioles and shunts is controlled by the hypothalamus
Shunt vessels constrict and muscles in walls of arterioles relax
Blood flows through arterioles making them dilate

52
Q

How is blood solute concentration controlled

A

If itemises from the norm due to too little water
Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus stimulated
Pituitary gland secretes hormone ADH
Kidneys reassign more water from urine

53
Q

What happens with moderate exercise?

A

Increases number and activity of lymphocytes

54
Q

What happens with excessive exercise

A

Increases risk of upper respiratory tract infections

Increased wear and tear on joints

55
Q

What are the properties of a tendon?

A

Join muscle to bone

In elastic

56
Q

What are the positives of key hole surgery

A

Less chance of bleeding due to small incision hole
Reduced hospital stays
Rapid recovery

57
Q

Define prosthetics

A

An artificial body part used by someone with a disability to enable him to regain some degree of normal function or appearance

58
Q

Define dynamic response

A

Changes shape under body weight but returns to its original shape

59
Q

Define articulated

A

Have joints making them better in uneven surfaces

60
Q

Describe peptide hormones

A

Not able to pass through the cell membrane
Bind to receptors activating secondary messengers in cytoplasm
Bringing about chemical changes within the cell
Directly or indirectly affecting gene transcription

61
Q

Describe steroid hormones

A

Able to pass through cell membrane as lipids
Bind directly to receptors within the cytoplasm
A hormone - receptor complex forms which brings about characteristic properties
Complex functions as a transcription factor

62
Q

What is the drug EPO

A

Peptide hormone naturally produced by kidneys
Stimulates formation of new red blood cells in bone marrow
If levels too high leads to increased risk thrombosis

63
Q

What is the hormone testosterone

A

Steroids hormone produced by testis and in small amounts by adrenal glands
Bind to androgen receptors and modify gene expression to alter the development of cell to increase anabolic reactions
Used to increase muscle development
Can lead to high blood pressure, liver damage, changes in menstrual cycle and sperm production

64
Q

What is the drug creatine

A

Not banned
An amino acid derived compound found in supplements
Carried int the blood to tissues
Causes improvements in performance during repeated, short duration and high intensity exercise

Biology Topic 5 (2 decks)

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