Topic 6 - Inheritance, Variation and Evolution Flashcards
what does DNA stand for?
deoxyribonucleic acid
what is DNA?
the chemical that all of the genetic material in a cell is made up from
what does DNA contain?
coded information, all the instructions to put an organism together and make it work.
so whats inside your DNA determines what inherited characteristics you have
where is DNA found?
in the nucleus of animal and plant cells, in really long structures called chromosomes, which normally com in pairs
what is DNA made of?
it’s a polymer made up of 2 strands coiled together in the shape of a double helix
what is a gene?
a small section of DNA found on a chromosome
what does each gene do?
it codes for (tells the cells to make) a particular sequence of amino acids which are put together to make a specific protein. they just tell cells the order to put the amino acids together in
how many amino acids are used to make proteins?
only 20 amino acids are used but hey make up thousands of different proteins
what does DNA determine?
what protein the cell produces, which determines what type of cell it is
what does genome mean?
the entire set of genetic material in an organism. scientists have worked out the complete human genome
why is understanding the human genome an important science tool for science and medicine?
it allows scientists to identify genes in the genome that are linked to different types of disease
scientists can look at genomes to trace the migration of certain populations of people around the world
why is knowing which genes link to disease important?
knowing which genes are linked to inherited diseases could help us understand them better and develop effective treatments for them
what can we tell about migration of humans from the human genome?
All humans are descended from a common ancestor from Africa, but humans can be found all over the planet. the human genome is most identical in individuals, as different populations migrated from Africa they developed tiny differences in their genomes. by investigating this scientists can work out when new populations split off in a different direction and what route they took
what are DNA strands?
polymers made up of lots of repeating repeating units called nucleotides
what do nucleotides consist of?
a sugar, a phosphate group and one ‘base’
what forms the ‘backbone’ of the DNA strands?
the sugar and phosphate groups in the nucleotides form a ‘backbone’. the sugar and phosphate groups alternate, one of 4 different bases (A,T,C or G) joins to each sugar
what is each base linked to?
each base links to a base on the opposite strand in the helix. A always pairs with T and C with G. this is called complementary base pairings
what determines the order of amino acids in a protein?
the order of bases in a gene. each amino acid is coded for by a sequence of 3 bases in the gene. the amino acids are joined together to make various proteins, depending on the order of the genes bases
what controls whether or not a gene is expressed?
there are parts of DNA that don’t code for proteins. some of these non-coding parts switch genes on and off, to control whether a gene is used to make a protein or not
where are proteins made?
the cell cytoplasm on tiny structures called ribosomes
how do ribosomes make proteins?
they use the code in the DNA. DNA is too big to move out of the nucleus so mRNA is used to get the code from the DNA to the ribosome
what is mRNA?
a molecule which is made by copying the code from DNA. it acts as a messenger between the DNA and the ribosome
how do ribosomes get the right amino acids?
the correct amino acids are brought to the ribosomes in the correct order by a carrier molecule
what happens when a chain of amino acids has been assembled?
it folds into a unique shape which allows the protein to perform the task its meant to do
what are some examples of types of proteins?
enzymes
hormones
structural proteins
what do enzymes do?
they act as biological catalysts to speed up chemical reactions in the body
what do hormones do?
they are used to carry messages around the body. e.g. insulin is a hormone released into the blood by the pancreas to regulate the blood sugar level
what do structural proteins do?
they are physically strong e.g. collagen is a structural protein that strengthens connective tissues (like ligaments and cartilage)
what is a mutation?
its a random change in an organisms DNA. they can sometimes be inherited
when do mutations occur?
they occur continuously. they can occur spontaneously, e.g. when a chromosome isn’t quite replicated properly.
what increases the chance of mutation?
exposure to certain substances or some types of radiation
what do mutations do?
they change the sequence of the DNA bases in a gene, which produces a genetic variant. as the sequence of DNA bases codes for the sequence of amino acids that make up a protein, mutations to a gene sometimes lead to changes in the protein that it codes for.
what effects do mutations have on proteins?
most have very little or no effect on the protein. some will change it to such a small extent that its function or appearance is unaffected. some mutations can seriously affect a protein, the mutation can code for an altered protein with a change in its shape. this could affect its ability to perform its function
how can a mutation affect a proteins ability to perform its function?
if the shape of an enzymes active site is changed, its substrate may no longer be able to bind to it
structural proteins like collagen could lose their strength if their
shape is changed, making them pretty useless at providing structure and support
what happens if there’s a mutation in the non-coding DNA?
it can alter how genes are expressed
what are examples of different types of mutation?
insertions
deletions
substitutions
what are insertion mutations?
this is where a new base is inserted into the DNA base sequence where it shouldn’t be. it changes the way the groups of 3 bases are ‘read’, which can change the amino acids they code for
how can insertions change more than one amino acid?
they can change more than 1 amino acid because they have a knock-on effect on the bases further on in the sequence
what are deletion mutations?
this is when a random base is deleted from the DNA base sequence. this changes the way the base sequence is ‘read’ and has a knock on effect further down the sequence.
what are substitution mutations?
this is when a random base in the DNA base sequence is changed to a different base
what happens during sexual reproduction?
genetic information from 2 organisms is combined to produce offspring which are genetically different to either parent. the mother and father produce gametes by meiosis e.g. egg and sperm cells
how many chromosomes do gametes have?
in humans, each gamete contains 23 chromosomes. half the number of chromosomes in a normal cell (1 of each instead of 2)
what do gametes do to form a normal cell?
the egg and the sperm cell fuse together (fertilisation) to form a cell with the full number of chromosomes
what does sexual reproduction involve?
the fusion of male and female gametes. because there are 2 parents, the offspring contain a mixture of their parent’s genes.
why does offspring of sexual reproduction have variation?
it inherits a mixture of genetic information from both parents through a mixture of chromosomes from both its mum and dad
other than animals, what else can sexually reproduce?
flowering plants can reproduce this way because they also have egg cells, but their version of sperm is known as pollen.
what is asexual reproduction?
in asexual reproduction there’s only 1 parent. there’s no fusion of gametes, or mixing of chromosomes or genetic variation between parent and offspring. the offspring are genetically identical to the parent - they are clones
how does asexual reproduction happen?
it happens by mitosis - an ordinary cell makes a new cell by dividing in 2, the new cell has exactly the same genetic information
what can reproduce asexually?
bacteria, some plants and some animals
why do gametes only ave 1 copy of each chromosome?
so that when gamete fusion takes place, you get the right amount of chromosomes
how do gametes only get half the original number of chromosomes?
they divide by meiosis, this involves 2 cell divisions. in humans it only takes place in the reproductive organs
what does the cell do before it starts to divide in meiosis?
it duplicates its genetic information, forming 2-armed chromosomes- each arm is a copy of the other. then the chromosomes arrange themselves into pairs
what happens in the 1st division of meiosis?
the chromosome pairs line up in the centre of the cell then they are pulled apart so each new cell only has 1 copy of each chromosome. some of the fathers chromosomes and some of the mothers go into each cell
what happens in the 2nd division of meiosis?
the chromosomes line up again in the centre of the cell and the arms of the chromosome are pulled apart
what do you get after meiosis?
4 gametes, with only a single set of chromosomes in each. each of the gametes is genetically different from the others because the chromosomes all get shuffled up during meiosis and each gamete only gets half of them
what do gametes do after being formed in meiosis?
they fuse together during fertilisation to create a new cell
what happens to the new cell after fertilisation?
it divides by mitosis to make a copy of itself, mitosis repeats many times to produce lots of new cells in an embryo
what happens to all the cells in an embryo as it develops?
they start to differentiate into the different types of specialised cell that make up a whole organism
what advantage does sexual reproduction have over asexual reproduction?
offspring has a mixture of 2 sets of chromosomes, it inherits genes from both parents, which produces variation.
how is variation advantageous?
variation increases the chance of a species surviving a change in the environment. they have a survival advantage
what is natural selection?
individuals with characteristics better adapted to the environment have a better chance of survival, they are more likely to breed successfully and pass genes on
what advantages does asexual reproduction have over sexual?
only 1 parent needed
uses less energy because organisms don’t need to find mates
faster than sexual reproduction
many identical offspring can be produced in favourable conditions
what organisms can reproduce both sexually and asexually?
malaria
many species of fungus
lots of species of plant
how does malaria produce sexually and asexually?
its a parasite spread by mosquitoes, the parasite is transferred to human when the mosquito bites them. the reproduce sexually in the mosquito and asexually when its in the human
how do spores reproduce sexually and asexually?
asexually-produced spores form fungi that are genetically identical. sexually produced spores introduce variation and are often produced in an unfavourable change in the environment, increasing the chance the population will survive the change
how do fungi reproduce?
they release spores which become new fungi when they land in a suitable place. spores can produce sexually and asexually.
how does asexual reproduction take place in strawberries?
strawberry plants produce ‘runners’ which are stems that grow horizontally on the surface of the soil away from the plant, at various points along the runner a new identical strawberry plant forms
how can plants produce asexually?
for example runners from strawberries and plants that grow from bulbs
how do plants that grow from bulbs reproduce asexually?
new bulbs can form from the main bulb and divide off. each new bulb can grow into a new identical plant
how many pairs of chromosomes do human have?
23, 22 are matched pairs that control characteristics the 23rd are labelled XX or XY that decide gender
what 23rd chromosome do men have and which do women have?
males have an X and a Y chromosome, Y causes male characteristics
females have 2 X chromosomes, the combination allows female characteristics to develop
what do X and Y chromosomes do when making sperm?
they are drawn apart in the 1st division in meiosis, there’s a 50% chance each sperm will get an X and 50% for the Y. A similar thing happens for eggs but they all get 1 X chromosome
what must you do when using a punnett square?
you must write the percentages of each outcome and what it is
what controls what characteristics people develop?
what genes you inherit, different genes control different characteristics. some characteristics are controlled by a single gene but most are controlled by several genes interacting
examples of characteristics controlled by a single gene:
mouse fur colour and red-green colour blindness
what are alleles?
the different versions of a gene - there’s 1 on each chromosome in a pair. that are represented by letters in genetic diagrams. you have 2 versions (alleles) of every gene in your body
what does homozygous mean?
when an organism has 2 alleles for a gene that are the same
what does heterozygous mean?
when an organisms alleles for a gene are different. this means only 1 can determine what characteristic is present. this would be the dominant allele
what causes an organism to display a recessive characteristic?
both its alleles would have to be recessive whereas for dominant characteristics the gene only needs 1 dominant allele