Topic 6 Flashcards
what are the modern approaches to management?
- systems theory
- contingency theory
what is systems theory?
-Organisations should be viewed as systems that transform inputs into outputs to the environment.
-organisation constantly interacts with its environment.
what is contingency theory?
-no one best way of managing due to the different situations or contingencies facing
organisations e.g strengths and weaknesses of organisation
what are the pessimistic predictions?
A future workplace characterised by:
* diminishing job opportunities in the economy’s
traditional industries,
* rising levels of unemployment
(automation, and widening social divisions)
what are the optimistic predictions?
- Points toward the emergence of:
- widely skilled and trained workers
- In highly individualised and fulfilling roles, with
- new possibilities for more liberating forms of work and
- a better blend of leisure and working time.
why is job quality important?
-protect people from stress and common mental health problems
-promote wellbeing and physical health
-higher levels of firm performance
- a key element of quality of life
what are the key predictions for the future of work?
- more upskilling for employees
- robots as co-workers
- shorter working days/weeks
4.hybrid working will be the norm - more part-time work options
- better quality jobs
- 5 generations of workers
why do people work?
-financial anxiety
-loss of ‘traction’ or life structure
-reduced skill development opportunities
-increase in psychologically threatening activities
-loss of status
what drives individual performance?
-motivation
-ability
-work environment
what is discretionary effort?
the level of effort people could give if they wanted to, but above and beyond the minimum required
psychologists typically categorise motivation theories as they relate to individuals into two types:
- content theories
- process theories
what do content of theories of motivation focus on?
the personal needs that workers
attempt to satisfy while also taking account of the features in the work environment that satisfy their needs.
what are the three main content theories?
- Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
- Alderfer’s ERG Theory
- Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:
-self actualisation
-esteem
-social
-safety
-psychological
what does Alderfer’s ERG Theory do?
Collapses Maslow’s theory into 3 categories
1. Existence (Levels 1 & 2)
2. Relatedness (Level 3)
3. Growth (Level 4 & 5
what is Alderfer’s ERG Theory?
Existence needs-Primary needs such as food, air and water. Also includes wages, fringe benefits and working conditions.
Relatedness needs- Social/interpersonal needs - establish significant interpersonal relationships. Drive you to relate to others and to search for recognition and esteem
Growth needs-Gratified when you create something or make a significant contribution while developing your potential
what is Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory of Motivation?
Motivators-Influence satisfaction gained from individual experiences, and so are the intrinsic
factors that are directly related to the doing of a job
Hygiene factors- Those that can prevent dissatisfaction but cannot increase satisfaction. The focus is on lower order needs and involves the presence or absence of job dissatisfiers, such as working conditions and pay
what are the examples of hygiene factors?
*Company policies
*Quality of supervision
*Relations with others
*Personal life
*Rate of pay
*Job security
*Working conditions
what are the examples of motivational factors?
Achievement
*Career advancement
*Personal growth
*Job interest
*Recognition
*Responsibility
what are process theories?
the way different variables combine to influence the amount of effort people are willing to put into something
what are examples of process theories?
- equity theory
- expectancy theory
- goal setting theory
what does equity theory focus on?
how individuals compare their circumstances to those of others and attempts to explain how such comparisons may motivate certain
kinds of behaviour
what is expectancy theory?
In deciding how much effort to put into a task, individuals first perform an internal
assessment or calculation inside their head
what are the three things people consider when deciding how much effort to out into a task? (expectancy theory)
-Effort to performance ratio - the probability that a certain amount of effort on
their part will lead to a certain level of performance
-The probability that a particular level of performance will lead to particular
outcomes
-The valence of a particular outcome - the anticipated value that a person attaches
to it
what is goal setting theory?
emphasises the importance of conscious goals and intentions in directing human behaviour
what needs to be applied when setting goals?
the goldilocks’ principle
what are positive reinforcements?
desirable consequences that follow a behaviour and are likely to increase that behaviour being repeated again in the future
what is negative reinforcement?
when an undesirable consequence decreases the likelihood of an individual engaging in an undesirable behaviour again
what are punishments?
unwanted consequences following an undesirable behaviour that is intended to decrease the likelihood of that behaviour being repeat
what is extinction?
the absence of positive consequences in an effort to decrease undesirable behaviour
what is performance management?
a process of establishing a shared understanding about what is to be achieved, and an approach to managing and developing people in a way that increases the probability that it will be achieved in the short and longer term
what do performance appraisals normally consist of?
an interview that takes place between
employees and their managers whereby employees’ performance is assessed and
future goals are set, which can be used to make reward, promotion and
development decisions
how can performance management pitfalls be overcome?
-Ensure that the appraiser is adequately trained
-Ensure that line managers and employees are involved in the design
-Ensure performance management is an open system visibly owned by senior
management
-Ensure performance management has an ease of administration associated with it
-Ensure there is always a follow up on the appraisal actions
how can underperformance be managed?
- identify and agree on the problem
- establish the reason(s) for the shortfall
- decide and agree on the action required
- resource the action
- monitor and provide feedback
what are the techniques used in performance appraisals?
-Rating – scale – ‘forced distribution’
-Assessment centres
-Self-assessment
-360° feedback
what are performance appraisals?
A systematic approach to evaluating employee performance, characteristics and/or potential, with a view to assisting decisions in a wide range of areas such as pay, promotion, employee development and motivation
what are the reward system objectives?
-attract and retain good workers
-motivate employees
-support the organisation (policies)
-comply with legislation
what are the different forms of performance related pay?
-merit pay
-piecework
-commission
-bonuses
-team based pay
-profit sharing schemes
-employee share ownership plans
-gain sharing schemes
what is merit pay?
rewards higher performing employees with additional pay and is normally linked to a performance appraisal conducted by a supervisor or line manager
what is piecework?
a payment given for each unit of production or ‘piece’ produced.
what is team based pay?
a payment given to members of a normally established team that is linked to their performance
what are employee share ownership plans?
legally established and used by companies to distribute shares to employee
what are gain sharing schemes?
where companies attempt to accrue savings by changing work practices.
what is internal alignment?
the relative pay relationships
between different jobs within an organization
what is external comparisons?
used to determine the amount or range of pay for each job based on an examination of the pay practices of competitors
