✅ Topic 5: Intelligence & Motivation on Health & Wellbeing

Question 1

What is intelligence (Mental ability) and IQ?

Answer 1

1. A latent construct defined as: the general ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, learn quickly, and learn from environment
2. Misunderstood phrase “what intelligence tests measure” (Boring) -> show that we can attempt to measure intelligence
3. Intelligent Quotient (IQ): measure of deviation of mental age from chronological age:
   - IQ = (mental age/chronological age) x 100
   - Redefined as a standardised score showing deviation from average score of 100.
   - Scores normally distributed with an SD of 15.

Question 2

What are some ways to measure intelligence? What is meant by G intelligence?

Answer 2

1. Digit span: repeat each string of numbers in the order that I say it, which the string gets longer after each repeat -> Example: 8-4-9-2
2. Letter number sequence: rearrange these items so say numbers then letter, in ascending orders -> Example: 74GR -> 47GR
3. Explaining proverb meaning (abstract thinking)
4. Trail making: join circles in numerical orders
5. Deduct unknown shape from pattern

=> (G)eneral intelligence: the common ‘mental energy’ underlying performance on all tests (different tests give the same results in IQ)

Question 3

What is the relationship between Intelligence and Health?

Answer 3

1. Context: IQ correlates with academic achievement, job performance, and longevity.
2. Cognitive epidemiology: the examination of cognition/IQ as a correlate of health and mortality
   - Longitudinal designs help to establish causality
   - Gather information about health behaviours
3. Issues:
   - Reverse causation: poor health -> lower IQ
   - Confounding effects - e.g. SES: affect both health and IQ (problem)

Question 3

What is the Hierarchy of G intelligence? Explain each of the domain and its task level?

Answer 3

1. Verbal ability:
   - Vocab reading
   - Synonyms
2. Working memory:
   - Digit span
   - Letter-number sequencing
3. Visual-spatial reasoning:
   - Boxfolding (3D folding of 2D box)
   - Hidden figures (hidden object in images)
4. Processing speed:
   - Reaction time
   - Trail-making

=> general intelligence: studied as ind. diff
=> 4 broad domains: studied by cogpsychology
=> No consensus on precise hierarchical structure/content

Question 3

Describe a longitudinal study of IQ? (Hint: Scottish)

Answer 3

1. Example study: Scottish Birth Cohort Studies
   - Children cohorts born in 1921 and 1936 took the same standardised mental test.
   - Samples were traced and recruited in cohort studies
2. The Moray House Test (mental test):
   - Contains 71 items e.g. arithmetic, following directions, proverbs, analogies, reasonings, etc.
   - Scores correlate with recent mental tests, such as the Raven’s Matrices and Stanford-Binet.
   - Valid measure of 10/11 IQ.
3. Methodology:
   - Compared childhood IQ of survivors vs. non-survivors
   - SES estimated by ‘overcrowding’ in childhood and father’s occupation.
   - Longitudinal design helps establish causality
4. Results:
   - Survivors have significantly higher childhood IQs
   - Smaller effect in men compared to women.
   - Clear consistent pattern for women, but many overlaps for men (WWII confounds)
   => Similar 9 studies: higher IQ in first 20-yrs is linked with lower mortality, after adjusting for childhood SES.
   => Stronger predictor of mortality than BMI, cholesterol, blood pressure; and at a similar level to smoking.

Question 4

What is the causal mechanism of IQ-Health?

Answer 4

Contribution of each mechanism may vary by cause of death.

1. Education: IQ -> better education -> better job -> higher adult SES status
   => Adjusting for adult SES reduces IQ-longevity association.
2. Health: IQ -> better health literacy & behaviours -> longevity
   - Medication adherence
   - Healthy eating and physical activity
   - Wearing seatbelts (safety measure)
   - Hangover frequency (lower binge-drinking)
3. Correlational: sub-optimal neural development -> lower IQ & higher psychiatric burden
   - Low IQ associated with psychiatric disorders
   - But controlling for birth weight does not eliminate IQ-longevity links
4. Somatic: body integrity (e.g. good genes & body functioning) -> IQ and health problems
   => Bodily symmetry associated with IQ, which is seen as indicator of good health

Question 5

What is the link between intelligence and happiness?

Answer 5

1. Example study: Ali et al.
   - Mixed results from previous studies
   - Asked Ps to complete: (1) happiness questionnaire + (2) verbal IQ measured with National Adult Reading Test (NART)
   - Measure mediating variables that may account for IQ-happiness links.
   => High IQ predicted likelihood of being happy
2. IQ-Happiness Relationship mediated by:
   - Dependency in daily functioning
   - Income (SES)
   - Neurotic symptoms
   - Self-reported health
   - Marital health (married -> happier)
   - Social participation
   => However further studies needed to test mechanism longitudinally.

Question 6

What is motivation? Why it is important to study?

Answer 6

1. An internal state that:
   - Energizes, direct, and lead behaviour towards the satisfaction of needs/drive
   - If unsatisfied, feel physiological/psychological arousal (or both)
   - Is dynamic rather than static
2. Why is it important to study?
   - Ind. difference (state and trait differences)
   - Linked with important life outcomes
   - Relationship with personality is unclear (and debated)

Question 7

What are the models of motivation?

Answer 7

1. Murray: Need (+Press) -> Motive -> Behaviour
   - Need: primary needs which are biological in nature (e.g. air, food, sex, pain avoidance)
   - Press: situational conditions event (can increase or decrease motive’s strength)
   - Motive: secondary/psychogenic needs which are derived from biology and/or psychological (e.g. nurturance and achievement)
   => Recent model changes include goals, to distinguish motivation from mood
2. What are secondary/psychogenic needs:
   - Murray identified 20 psychogenic needs (+7 provisional needs)
   - Most research now focuses on 3 secondary needs: achievement, affiliation, power.

Question 8

Describe McClelland’s Acquired Needs Theory and explain its sub-components

Answer 8

1. Theory proposes 3 basic needs:
   - Achievement: desire to master skills, do things well, and accomplish goals etc.
   - Affiliation: desire to form relationships and spend time with others.
   - Power: desire to influence and control others
   => Needs can change with time and within individuals (trait difference)
2. How to measure:
   - Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
   - Projective tests -> appropriate for motivation research (implicit nature of motives)
3. Identify sub-components (Hope and Fear):
   - Achievement: Hope to success vs. Fear of failure
   - Power: Hope of power vs. Fear of weakness
4. Subtypes of motive for needs of Affiliation:
   - Emotional support
   - Positive stimulation
   - Attention from others
   - Social comparison

Question 9

How individual differences in need for achievement influence their behaviours?

Answer 9

1. People high in this need have preference for:
   - tasks of moderate difficulty, that indicate ability
   - work settings with frequent feedback on current vs. previous performance
2. Correlations at individual-level:
   - Entrepreneurial success and innovation
   - Poor leadership and managerial skills -> find it difficult to delegate task (high autonomy)
3. Correlations at societal/historic-level:
   - Economic growth and innovation
   - Civil war and ineffective leadership
4. Supporting study: looking at societal level ‘need for achievement’ in England using content analysis of popular literatures
   - Projections of author’s values, needs, motives
   - Scored extracts of achievement imagery (inter-rater reliability of ~.96)
   - Estimate economic activity through coal imports
   => Increasing need for achievement leads to subsequent increase economic growth

Question 10

How individual differences in need for power influence their behaviours?

Answer 10

1. Can reflect desire to influence and have impact, not necessarily just dominate and control
   - expressed through generativity (nurture)
   - attracted by jobs involving teaching
   - having larger families & greater parental involvement (for females)
2. Correlations at individual-level:
   - Higher testosterone levels
   - Higher sexual activity and aggression
   - Managerial, leadership and career success
3. Correlations at societal/historic-level:
   - Increase in wars and arms
   - Effective leadership
4. Supporting study: explore links between high need for power and presidential performance (PP)?
   - Motives estimated from previous coding of US Presidents’ speeches.
   - ‘PP’ indicators measured by e.g. war entry, perceived ‘greatness’ & decision
   => Indicators predicted by high Need for Power (and lower Needs for Achievement and Affiliation)
   => Unlikely due to reverse causation, bias in coding motives or presidential performance

Question 11

How individual differences in need for affiliation influence their behaviours?

Answer 11

1. Correlations at individual-level:
   - Like similar others, dislike dissimilar others
2. Correlations at societal/historic-level:
   - Peace and disarmament
   - Political scandal
3. Supporting study: importance of concessions to avoid/resolve conflicts
   - Undergrad responses to letter relating to Cuban Missile Crisis (after instructions)
   - Letters coded for concessions and needs
   => Need for Affiliation positively related to concessions, vice versa for Need for Power

Question 12

What is the physiology of Need for Power?

Answer 12

1. Model: High testosterone = High Need for Power -> Engagement in Power-challenge situations -> Activation of Stress Response (Sympathetic NS)
   - Symptoms include: increased heart rate, muscle tension and inhibit immune system
2. Study -133 male prison inmates participated were measured:
   - The need for power and affiliation using TAT
   - No. of stressors experienced
   - No. and severity of illnesses in the past 12 months
   - Saliva sample to measure salivary immuno-globulin-A (S-IgA) -> immune functioning
3. Results: Those with High need for power experienced worse illness severity at high stress and has worse immune functioning (lower level of S-IgA concentration)
   => ‘Stressed power motive’ associated with poorer health”
   => High need for power itself is “not a general vulnerability for impaired health”

Question 13

What is the physiology of Need for Affiliation?

Answer 13

1. Associated with parasympathetic NS, symptoms include: conserve energy, promotes functions (e.g. digestive and immune system) => Generally positive effects on health
2. Study: 132 students were measured:
   - The need for affiliation (TAT) BEFORE and AFTER watching one of two short films.
   - Need for affiliation group (Mother Theresa) primed further in post-film writing task about love and caring.
   - Saliva sample to measure S-IgA before and after films
   - Measured illness experienced that year.
3. Results: Evidence for protective effects of need for affiliation, and no overall change in need for power.
   => BUT, sub-group with inhibited power motive syndrome (high power, low affiliation) did show reduction in S-IgA after WWII film.
   => No link between reactive increase in S-IgA and illness history (just a normal response)